ABSTRACT
The study examined the status of women’s participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The study was necessitated by the gross under-representation of Akwa Ibom women in the political arena of the state. The objectives of the study are to assess how domestic, economic, social and cultural challenges affected women participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The research method adopted for this study is quantitative approach. Three research questions and two null and alternative hypotheses were developed to guide the study. The study adopts the Theory of Equality and Human Rights Approach (HRBA) A Rights-Based Approach to realizing Gender Equality by Professor Savitri Goonesekere (1994) to analyse the work. The theory holds that Gender equality and women’s political participation is not just a question of academic interest but that women’s rights are human rights. Survey research design was adopted for the study. The study discovered that the level of women participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State is low and marginal. Factors such as Domestic factors, economic factors and socio-cultural factors are the major challenges to women participation in politics in the State. The study identified among other things that giving women equal participation with men in the governance and nominating women into the political body of the state, as measures that could be adopted to enhance women effective participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State. Other measures include: imbibing political cultures and environment that encourages gender-sensitivity, eliminating gender biases against women’s participation in politics and giving women chances as party executives. The study recommended among others, that there should be supportive network and prospective role models to women through the identification of aspirants and pairing them with established women politicians, playing mentoring role and providing capacity building training to young or aspiring female politicians.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page – – – – – – – – i
Declaration – – – – – – – – ii
Certification – – – – – – – – iii
Dedication – – – – – – – – iv
Acknowledgement – – – – – – – – v
Abstract – – – – – – – – vi
Table of Contents – – – – – – – – vii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study – – – – – – – 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem – – – – – – – 8
1.3 Research Questions – – – – – – – 10
1.4 Objectives of the Study – – – – – – – 11
1.5 Hypotheses of the Study – – – – – – – 11
1.6 Significance of the Study – – – – – – – 12
1.7 Scope and Limitation of the Study – – – – – 14
1.8 Definition of Terms – – – – – – – 15
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction – – – – – – – 18
2.1 The Concept of Participation in Politics, Gender Equality and Development 18
2.2 Women’s Participation in Politics in Nigeria from the Pre-Colonial,
Colonial to the Contemporary days. – – – – – 21
2.2.1 Pre-Colonial Nigerian Women – – – – – – 21
2.2.2 The Colonial Nigerian Women – – – – – – 22
2.2.3 The Contemporary Nigerian Women – – – – – 26
2.3 Global Actions for Women towards Gender Equality – – – 28
2.4 Factors Affecting Women’s Effective Participation in Politic in Nigeria – 30
2.4.1 Administrative Factors – – – – – – 31
2.4.2 Economic Factor – – – – – – – 35
2.4.3 Social and Domestic Issues – – – – – – 36
2.5 Prospect for Women’s Effective Participation in Politics in Nigeria – 39
2.6 Synthesis of the Literature Review and Gap in the Literature – – 40
2.7 Theoretical Framework – – – – – – – 42
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Area – – – – – – – – 46
3.2 Population of the Study – – – – – – – 46
3.3 Research Method – – – – – – – – 46
3.4 Sampling Size and Technique – – – – – – 47
3.5 Sources and Method of Data Collection – – – – – 47
3.6 Method of Data Presentation and Analysis – – – – 47
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.1 Introduction – – – – – – – – 48
4.2 Bio data of respondents – – – – – – – 48
4.3 Discussion of Major Findings of the Study – – – – 61
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary – – – – – – – – 66
5.2 Conclusions – – – – – – – – 67
5.3 Recommendations – – – – – – – – 69
References – – – – – – – – 73
Appendix – – – – – – – – 77
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
Every human being has the right to participate in decisions that define his or her life. This right is the foundation of the ideal of equal participation in politics among women and men. This right argues that since women know their situation best, they should participate equally with men to have their perspective effectively incorporated at all levels of governance, from the private to the public spheres of their lives, and from the local to the global level, women have been deprived of their right of participation in the politics.
The United Nations (UN) Women’s Conference in Beijing Report (1995:7) emphasized that “women have the right to participate in decision-making of government. This is for reasons of equity, democracy and legitimacy, the empowerment of women and that the improvement of women’s social, economic and political status is essential for the achievement of transparent, accountable government and sustainable development in all areas of life.” In addition, Miranda (2005:20), says “equality between women and men is a matter of human rights and a condition for social justice and is also a necessary and fundamental prerequisite for equality, sustainable development and peace”. As the United States Agency for International Development (USAID 2010:10) has observed, “no society can develop successfully without both increasing and transforming opportunities and resources for women and men, girls, and boys so that they have equal power to shape their own lives and contribute to their communities”. Ogbaji (2010:1) corroborates this position when he states that “women all over the world suffer from and are faced with many peculiar and complex problems. Many of these problems revolve around their rights within their different societies…exacerbated by the existence of several discriminatory practices against them”. Antrobus (1991) as cited in Ogbaji (2010:2), explains that “all women unremunerated household works are exploited, we all have conflicts in our multiple roles… we struggle for survival and dignity, and we share our exclusion from decision-making at all levels”.
According to the editorial comment of Women’s Rights Monitor (1995:5) as cited in Ogbaji (2010:5) “the rights privileges, and opportunities governed by customary laws and statutes are largely inaccessible to women in real terms. It is pertinent to note that the struggle for the rights of women is a positive one which recognizes the quality of women’s contribution in every aspect of the community. In pre-colonial Nigeria, many women gained socio-political and economic prominence either through achievement or as reward as they become more involved in trade. Opportunity existed for women to take leadership roles in politics, religion, social and economic life.”
As Mukhopadhyay (2005:16) observes, “most Nigerian men (and perhaps other countries in the continent) claim that no matter the level of educational attainment of women, they are still inferior to men (all men) because they are women”. Without the participation of women at all levels of governance, the goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved. Taking the conceptualisation of democracy by Diamond (1989:16), into cognisance, democracy provides the equal opportunity platform for political participation and fairness in such competition…” In a similar perspective, Onyeoziri (1989:26), conceptualises four indicative domains of democracy which include: “the domain of individual and group rights and freedoms; the domain of popular and equal participation in collective decision; the domain of accountability of government to mass publics and constituent minorities; and the domain of the application of the principles of equal citizenship in all spheres of life- social, economic and political”. The conceptual underpinnings of the definitions are freedom and equal opportunity for participation in governance that democracy avails both men and women. As Diamond (1989:16), further states:
“the running theme of these definitions is that any claim to democratic state must essentially embrace a high degree of competitive choice, openness, and enjoyment of civil and political liberties and popular participation that embraces all groups of the society, one that is not segregationist or discriminatory. Democracy cannot truly deliver for all of its citizens if half of the population remains under-represented in the decision-making arena.”
If democracy does not ordinarily discriminate on the grounds of race, religion or sex, then stifled opportunities experienced in the participation of women in politics in the government of Akwa Ibom State in particular and Nigeria in general, suggests a level of artificiality and man-made imposition. Furthermore, Diamond (1989:16), states, “though women often face daunting social, economic and political challenges, for democracy to deliver, women must be equal partners in democratic processes as activists, elected officials and constituents a component part, as their contributions are crucial to building a strong and vibrant society.” It is, however, believed that while the natural relationship between mother and her child may compel and confine her to sedentary activities, it is also important that such mother should contribute her quota to the development of her family and that of her society at large, hence, the call for full incorporation of Akwa Ibom State women in the governance of the state.
In Nigeria, the structure of the society, its values, traditions, and institutions all have an in-built discrimination against women. Women are regarded by everyone as weak, irrational, passive, and thus inferior. And even when educated, they are believed to share the same behavioural patterns and personality traits of their less educated sisters, simply because they are women, Nweke in WIN, (1985:201). Nadezdha (2002:82), notes, “Men dominate the political arena; men formulate the rules of the political game; and men define the standards for evaluation”. The existence of this male-dominated model results in either women rejecting politics altogether or rejecting male-style politics. In support of the above view, Sepoe (1996) observed that: the impediments to women’s participation in decision-making arena of governance are many and varied, ranging from personal, social and economic.
Adedotun (2010:14), and Umeha (2011:19), examining the fundamental factors that inhibit women’s participation in political leadership/decision-making observes: “the involvement of women in Nigerian politics is largely noticeable at the level of voting and latent support”, and maintains that “to a large extent, their participation has been dependent on whatever political socialization process they have undergone. These barriers could be cultural, economic, legal or political culture”. The Beijing Platform for Action decried the persistent exclusion of women from nominal positions of government and maintained that the exclusion of women in formal politics, in particular, raises a number of specific questions regarding the achievement of effective democratic transformations, and in practice, it undermines the concept of democracy, which, by its nature, assumes that the right to vote and to be voted for should be equally applied to all citizens, both women and men. Therefore, in all levels of government, there is certainly the need for women’s effective role in decision-making for the democratic and constitutional assurances of equal citizenship and rights in the Nigerian Constitution to become a reality at the operational level. There is need to upheaval Akwa Ibom women from the general political, economic, cultural etc. domination in Nigeria by creating a level playing field for women to participate in the in politics or decision-making process.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The United Nations Women’s Conference held in Beijing in 1995 emphasized the right of women to participate in the politics of the state for reasons of equity, democracy and legitimacy, but as United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) 1985 Human Development report indicates, in no society do women enjoy the same opportunities as men. Similarly, International Development Research Centre (IDRC 2010) has established the fact that there is marginalization of women in political leadership in Nigeria. The Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA) (1995:7) emphasizes that “women’s equal participation in politics is not only a demand for justice or democracy, but also a necessary condition for women’s interests to be taken into account”. The Nigerian administrative practices over the years have not adequately conformed to the Universal declarations on the eliminations of all forms of discriminations against women.
Women’s participation in politics is a gamut of equal rights to participate in politics as party executives, to vote and to be voted for as candidates as well as participate in the governance processes of the state. The Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in 1995, drew attention to the persisting inequality between men and women in decision-making process when it stated that “no state can claim democracy if half of its population are excluded from decision-making processes”. Following from conferences in Copenhagen, Nairobi, Vienna, Cairo and Beijing, women participation in development has become a recurrent issue as women access to politics of the state is now recognized as a fundamental condition for democracy and for attaining sustainable development, and as true democracy is characterized by full and equitable participation of women in both formulation and implementation of governance in all spheres of public life. Endale (2014:22) observes that sustainable and all round developments of a society cannot be brought about without the full and unreserved participation of both women and men in the development process, and such a balanced development should also call for the elimination of all forms of discrimination, and the protection against all forms of violence against women.
Despite more legislation protecting women’s rights, their progress into state‟s decision-making process has been disappointingly slow. Arguments are on the increase on the specific role women should play in the society. These divided opinions, according to Adeniyi (2003:34), are predominantly on “whether the role of women is in the home fronts or women can also engage in other socio-economic and political activities like their male counterparts.
Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria was created in 1987 with her first ever state House of Assembly coming into existence on 20th January, 1992. In 1999, democratic governance was returned, thus, marks the second Assembly of the State. From this date 1999 till date, through the third Assembly: 2003- 2007; to the fourth Assembly: 2007 – 2011; to the fifth Assembly: 2011- 2015: to the sixth Assembly: 2015 till date, the socio-historical literature of women elected as governors, speakers of the house of Assembly etc. in Akwa Ibom State has been silent. The same would have been said of the deputy Governor if not that the former Governor of the state, through appointment, pick the Honourable Lady Valerie Ebe to fill the vacancy from which Nsima Ekere resigned. Despite international agreement affirming women’s rights to participate in governance just like men, and in spite of the clarion calls by International Organizations such as the Beijing Conference towards women’s political empowerment; and despite the widespread movement towards democratization of women in political leadership processes, women’s participation in governance in the government of Akwa Ibom State has continued to be characterized by newly emerging issues and challenges that need to be addressed.
1.3 Research Questions
It is within the context of subsisting marginalization, neglect and suppression of Akwa Ibom women in governance of the government of Akwa Ibom State that the research undertook the following investigative questions.
How does the character of women affect their participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State?
Participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State What are the challenges of women’s?
What measures could be taken to enhance women’s effective participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State?
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of the study is to assess how the economic, cultural and social factors posed serious challenge to women’s participation in the politics of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.
The subsidiary objectives include;
i. To examine the challenges to women participation in participating in politics in Akwa Ibom State, and,
ii. To suggest measures that could enhance women’s effective participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State.
1.5 Hypotheses of the Study
Hypotheses 1
The following hypotheses were subjected to testing and generalization.
Ho: There is no significant relationship between the character of women and their participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State.
H1: There is a significant relationship between the character of women and their participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State.
Hypotheses 2
Ho: There is no significant relationship between domestic and economic challenges and women participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State.
H1: There is a significant relationship between domestic and economic challenges and women participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State.
1.6 Significance of the Study
The study is both theoretically and empirically significant. Its theoretical relevance lies essentially in the fact that the study gives a fairly sufficient illustration of the application of the nature and character of women participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State in particular and Nigeria in general. Sound background information of the study area will be imperative to really bring to limelight the relevance and significance of the challenges of women’s participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State.
1.7 Scope and Limitation of the Study
The study covered the level of women’s participation in politics in Akwa Ibom State, from 1999 till date, with a view to determining women’s challenges in their effective participation in political arena and suggests measures that could enhance their effective participation in the government of the State. 1999 is chosen as a starting point because it marks the commencement of democratic rule in Nigeria after a long period of military rule.
1.8 Definition of Terms
Women: This refers to the feminine gender that has attained maturity and can take or accept responsibility as a result of their maturity. Women, around the world, have been acknowledged to constitute half of a country’s population.
Women’s Participation: This means the level at which women participates in politics of their state. It refers to the involvement of women in politics which is seems to revolve at the level of mobilization of other women to vote, voting and getting latent support from the politicians.
Women’s Participation in politics: Women’s participation in politics means equal opportunity for women to participate in policy-making of the state with high degree of competitive choice and openness without segregation.
Political Participation: Is a concept which allows for political agendas to be developed by women „taking part in politics‟ through a range of activities such as discussion and debate, lobbying and activism in formal and informal ways.
Political leadership: cuts across both political participation and political representation, by key individuals shaping political agendas, taking the lead in articulating these and participating in their translation into policy. The context in which these concepts are unfolding today also needs to be taken into account.
Gender: The UN-Habitat, (200), an organizational based definition refers to „gender‟ as economic, social, cultural attributes and opportunities associated with being male or female. That is well demonstrated in virtually all societies, the disparities between women and men in various activities and undertakings.
Gender equality or equality between women and men: refers to the equal enjoyment by women, girls, boys and men of rights, opportunities, resources and rewards. Equality does not mean that women and men are the same but that their enjoyment of rights, opportunities and life chances are not governed or limited by whether they were born female or male.
