Connectivism as a Learning Theory for the Digital Age

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George Siemens and Stephen Downes developed a theory for the digital age, called connectivism, denouncing boundaries of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Their proposed learning theory has issued a debate over whether it is a learning theory or instructional theory or merely a pedagogical view. While the theory presented is important and valid, is it a tool to be used in the learning process for instruction or curriculum rather than a standalone learning theory? It has also forced educators to look at what is being done in digital education and rethink, debate, and philosophize over how each part fits. Continually evaluating how each new generation learns with regard to instruction and curriculum serves to hold education to high standards. Certainly this theory is worth our thorough consideration. Connectivism as a Learning Theory George Siemens and Stephen Downes developed a theory for the digital age, called connectivism, denouncing boundaries of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Their proposed learning theory has issued a debate over whether it is a learning theory or instructional theory or merely a pedagogical view. What are the essential criteria for something to be a learning theory? A theory generally applies to the synthesis of a large body of information. The criterion of a theory is not whether it is true or untrue, but rather whether it is useful or not useful for explaining or predicting behavior. A theory is useful even though the ultimate causes of the phenomenon it encompasses are unknown. A theory can be refined, or with new information, it can take on a new direction. If thoroughly tested, a theory may be widely accepted for a long period of time but later disproved (Dorin, Demmin, & Gabel, 1990). So a useful theory of learning must have resulted from considerable testing and observation. In the evaluation of the quality of a theory, one must consider several other criterions as well. The criterion of falsiability, developed by Sir Karl Popper, requires that a researcher carefully examine any negative evidence that proves their conclusions untrue. Additionally, a rule of parsimony is the preference of simple theories over highly complex ones (Johnson & Christensen, 2004). What are the essential criteria for something to be an instructional theory? An instructional theory, on the other hand, must prescribe procedures to enable learning efficiently and effectively. According to Jerome Bruner (1966) an instructional theory should Connectivism as a Learning Theory for the Digital Age 2 deal with four major elements: (1) the learning predisposition, 2) the design of concepts to be presented and its structure for ease of understanding, (3) the most successful progression of ideas in which to present a body of knowledge, and (4) the administration of rewards and punishments. Therefore, an instructional theory focuses on the overall structure of learning material for the most successful learning experience. As a result of Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of Education Objectives from 1956, instructional theory enabled the educator to code the learning process (Bloom, 1984). This spawned a series of instructional theorists such as Robert Gagne, who published Conditions of Learning in 1965 for the Florida State University’s Department of Educational Research. From the late 1970s, instructional theory has been traditionally split into two categories: behaviorism and cognitivism. B. F. Skinner’s behaviorist theories were popular, because they could be evaluated using the new categorization kind of process, were as it was more difficult to demonstrate a cognitive learning result. In opposition, Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed criticized the idea of an educational model being “banked”. Much like Bruner’s definition of instructional theory, Schott and Driscoll (1997) formulated a proposal for a universal instructional theory. Four components for an instructor and designer to consider were: (1) the learner, (2) the learning task, which includes learning outcome goals, (3) the conditions and instructional methods for learning, the overall environment, and (4) a frame of reference for specific learning. “Therefore, the purpose of instructional theory is to be prescriptive, to provide principles by which teachers and instructional designers can assure learning” (Driscoll, p. 353). Robert M Gagne more clearly defined instructional theory during World War II for the process of training pilots in the Air Force. He later developed a sequence of requirements that codify what educators should use for instruction. Gagne is considered to be the foremost researcher and contributor to the organized approach to instructional theory. His major input to the theory of instruction was his model for “Nine Events of Instruction” from his book, The Conditions of Learning: Training Applications in 1996. 1. Gaining attention 2. Informing learners of the objective 3. Stimulating recall of prior learning 4. Presenting the content 5. Providing learning guidance 6. Eliciting performance 7. Providing feedback 8. Assessing performance 9. Enhancing retention and transfer Robert Gagne is regarded as the leading researcher to a methodical approach to instructional design and teaching. Since the focus is on behaviors as the outcomes that result from specific training, his followers are regarded as behaviorists (Gagne & Medsker, 1996). What are the differences between a learning theory and an instructional theory? What might not have been clearly obvious is that learning theory differs from instructional theory in that learning theories describe how learning essentially occurs, while instructional Connectivism as a Learning Theory for the Digital Age 3 theories explain how to achieve the preferred learning outcomes. One may reflect on the idea that cognitive theory is the leading theory in instructional design and many of the instructional strategies promoted and used by behaviorists are also used by cognitivists, but for a different purpose. For example, behaviorists evaluate a learner to assess prior knowledge, while cognitivists evaluate a learner to establish their predisposition to learning (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Therefore, instructional design can be viewed from a behaviorist or cognitivist approach instead of the constructivist approach. Designing instruction by using a behaviorist or cognitive approach requires the educator to analyze the situation and then set specific goals. These goals are broken down into learning objectives and are further broken down into individual tasks. Assessment is based on whether specific criteria for each objective have been met. Instructional designer defines what the learner should know. Evaluation could be based on tests for mastery learning. The constructivist approach, on the other hand, requires that the instructional designer produce a result that is more facilitative than specific. Knowledge gained is not pre-specified for the learner and evaluation is more subjective, since it does not rely on specific quantitative criteria. Results are obtained from the process and self evaluation of the learner instead. Evaluation could be based on notes, projects, or journals. Because the learner can understand numerous realities, the learner is better able to deal with real life circumstances. If a learner can problem solve, he or she may be better able to apply existing knowledge to a new situation. A learning theory tries to classify what is known about learning. It has two central values for the researcher or instructor. Learning theories provide a conceptual framework and vocabulary to enable observations to be interpreted and understood. By using this commonality, those involved in the learning process can effectively explain what is observed and build or develop new ways to provide more meaning. Second, a learning theory provides a resource for the educator to solve a practical problem with a practical solution. (Merriam & Caffarella, 1991) What is connectivism? Stated simply, connectivism is social learning that is networked. Stephen Downes described it as, “… the thesis that knowledge is distributed across a network of connections, and therefore that learning consists of the ability to construct and traverse those networks” (Downes, 2007). Connectivism is characterized as a reflection of our society that is changing rapidly, complex, connected socially, global, and mediated by increasing advancements in technology. It is the orchestration of a complex disarray of ideas, networked to form specific information sets. Ways of knowing are derived from a diversity of opinions. The individual does not have control; rather it is a collaboration of current ideas as seen from a present reality. The core skill is the ability to see connections between information sources and to maintain that connection to facilitate continual learning. Decisions are supported by rapidly altering fundamentals as new information is quickly integrated to create a new climate of thinking. This constant update and shift of knowledge also can be contained outside the learner, such as in a database or other specialized information source. For the learner to be connected to this outside knowledge is more important than his or her existing state of knowing. The first point of connectivism is the individual. Personal knowledge consists of a system of networks, which supplies an organization, which in turn gives back to the system. The individual continues the cycle of knowledge growth by his or her access back into the system. The advantage is that the learner can remain current on any topic Connectivism as a Learning Theory for the Digital Age 4 through the connection they have created. Within any defined social network, there is a focus for groups of people with a common goal. They can promote and sustain a well-organized flow of knowledge (Siemens, 2004).