TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICTION………………………………………………………………………………………………………… i

DEDICATION………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT…………………………………………………………………………………………… iii

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv

LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………………………………………… vii

LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………………………………… viii

CHAPTER ONE……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1

• Crude Oil System……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
  • Properties of crude oil system…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
  • Characterization of Crude Oil…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
  • Foaming Agents……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
  • Factors Contributing to Crude Oil Foam Formation………………………………………………………………. 8
  • Properties of foam…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10
  • Statement of Problem……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
  • Objective of the work……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
  • Scope/Justification of the work………………………………………………………………………………………… 14

CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15

• LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 15
  • Work on Effect of Wettability of the Rock on Oil-Foam Interactions……………………………………. 17

CHAPTER THREE………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19

• :…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
  • Materials and Equipment Used…………………………………………………………………….. 19
  • :     Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the Density of Crude Oil…………………………………….. 20
  • Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the Specific Gravity of Crude Oil…………………………. 22
  • Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the Viscosity of Crude Oil…………………………………… 24
  • Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the Surface Tension of Crude Oil…………………………. 26
  • Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on Cloud Point and Pour Point of Crude Oil……………… 29

CHAPTER FOUR……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 32

• RESULT AND DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………… 32
  • Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the Density of Crude Oil…………………………………….. 32
  • Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the Specific Gravity of Crude Oil…………………………. 35
  • Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the API Gravity Of Crude Oil……………………………… 38
  • Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the Apparent and Plastic Viscosity of Crude Oil…….. 41
  • Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the Surface Tension Of Crude Oil………………………… 47
  • Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the Surface Tension Of Crude Oil………………………… 50

CHAPTER 5……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 58

• CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION………………………………………………… 58
  • CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………….. 58

RECOMMENDATION………………………………………………………………………………………… 58

NOMENCLATURE…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 63

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1	Determination of the effect of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (Omo) and Ammonium Dodecysulate (Vinoz Shampoo) on the Density of Crude Oil	32
Table 2	Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo) and the corresponding Density	34
Table 3	Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) and the corresponding Specific Gravity	35
Table 4	Mass of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo) and the corresponding Specific Gravity	37
Table 5	Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water and the corresponding	38
Table 6	Mass of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo) and the corresponding API gravity	40
Table 7	Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water and the corresponding plastic viscosity	41
Table 8	Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water and the corresponding Plastic Viscosity	43
Table 9	Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo) and the corresponding Apparent Viscosity	44
Table10	Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo) and the corresponding Apparent viscosity	46
Table 11	Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water and the corresponding surface tension	47
Table 12	Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo) and the corresponding surface tension	49
Table 13	Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water and the corresponding cloud point	50
Table 14	Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo) and the corresponding cloud point	52
Table 15	Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water and the Corresponding pour point	53
Table 16	Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo) and the corresponding pour point	55
Table 17	Summary of foaming agents and crude oil properties used	57

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1	Shear stress – shear rate plot for Newtonian fluids	11
Figure 2	Shear stress vs shear rate curves for non-Newtonian fluid	12
Figure 3	Pycnometer on weighing balance	21
Figure 4	Hydrometer in a measuring Cylinder	24
Figure 5	Rheometer	26
Figure 6	Schematic of Surface tension system	26
Figure 7	Tensiometer	28
Figure 8	Cloud and Pour Equipment	31
Figure 9	Plot of Crude oil density vs Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo)	33
Figure 10	Plot of Crude oil density vs Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo)	34
Figure 11	Plot of Specific Gravity vs Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo)	36
Figure 12	Plot of Specific Gravity vs Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo)	37
Figure 13	Plot of API gravity vs Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water	39
Figure 14	Plot of API gravity vs Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo)	40
Figure 15	Plot of Apparent Viscosity vs volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water	42
Figure 16	Plot of Plastic Viscosity vs Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water	43
Figure 17	Plot of Apparent Viscosity vs Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz)	45
Figure 18	Plot of Plastic Viscosity vs Mass of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo)	46
Figure 19	Plot of Surface Tension vs Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water	48
Figure 20	Plot of Surface Tension vs Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo)	49
Figure 21	Plot of cloud point vs Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water	51
Figure 22	Plot of Cloud point vs Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo)	52
Figure 23	Plot of Pour point vs Volume of Sodium Laureth Sulphate (omo) with distilled water	54
Figure 24	Plot of Pour point vs Volume of Ammonium Dodecysulate (vinoz shampoo)	55

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

          Crude Oil System

Crude Oil or Petroleum refers to any naturally-occurring flammable hydrocarbon mixture found in geologic formations, such as rock strata, formed through the heating and compression of organic material such as dead zooplankton and algae over a long period of time. Technically, the term petroleum only refers to crude oil, but sometimes it is applied to describe any solid, liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons. It is a hydrocarbon mixture having simple to most complex structures such as resins, asphaltenes etc. Crude oil can be refined to produce usable products such as gasoline, diesel and various forms of petrochemicals.

Crude oil is also a naturally occurring mixture, consisting of hydrocarbon with other element such as sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen, etc. appearing in the form of organic compounds which in some cases form complexes with metals. Elemental analysis of crude oil shows that it contains mainly carbon and hydrogen in the appropriate ration of six to one by weight. The mixture of hydrocarbon is highly complex, and the complexity increases with boiling range.

Crude oil is formed by bacterial transformation of Organic matter (carbohydrates/proteins/ animal origin) by decay in presence and/or absence of air into HC rich sediments by undergoing biological/physical and chemical alterations In its strictest sense, crude oil, but in common usage it includes all liquid, gaseous, and solid hydrocarbons. Under                  surface pressure         and                                temperature                               conditions,            lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane occur as gases, while pentane and heavier ones are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an underground oil reservoir the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the phase diagram of the crude mixture.

                        Properties of crude oil system Density

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance. It is most often reported for oils in units of g/mL or g/cm3, and less often in units of kg/m3. Density is temperature-dependent. Oil will float on water if the density of the oil is less than that of the water. This will be true of all fresh crude oils, and most fuel oils, for both salt and fresh water. Bitumen and certain residual fuel oils may have densities greater than 1.0 g/mL and their buoyancy behaviour will vary depending on the salinity and temperature of the water. The density of spilled oil will also increase with time, as the more volatile (and less dense) components are lost. After considerable evaporation, the density of some crude oils may increase enough for the oils to submerge below the water surface.

Two density-related properties of oils are often used: specific gravity and American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity. Specific gravity (or relative density) is the ratio, at a specified temperature, of the oil density to the density of pure water. The API gravity scale arbitrarily assigns an API gravity of 10° to pure water. API gravity is

Calculated as:

API gravity (^o) = (141.5/ (specific gravity (60/60^oF) – 131.5………………………………….. (1)

Oils with low densities, and hence low specific gravities, have high API gravities. The price of a crude oil is usually based on its API gravity, with high gravity oils commanding higher prices.

Pour Point

The pour point of an oil is the lowest temperature at which the oil will just flow, under standard test conditions. The failure to flow at the pour point is usually attributed to the

separation of waxes from the oil, but can also be due to the effect of viscosity in the case of very viscous oils. Also, particularly in the case of residual fuel oils, Pour points may be influenced by the thermal history of the sample, that is, the degree and duration of heating and cooling to which the sample has been exposed. From a spill response point of view, it must be emphasized that the tendency of the oil to flow will be influenced by the size and shape of the container, the head of the oil, and the physical structure of the solidified oil. The pour point of the oils is therefore an indication, and not an exact measure, of the temperature at which flow ceases.

Viscosity

Dynamic Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow; the lower the viscosity of a fluid, the more easily it flows.

Like density, viscosity is affected by temperature. As temperature decreases, viscosity increases. The SI unit of dynamic viscosity is the millipascal-second (mPa∙s). This is equivalent to the former unit of centipoise (cp). Viscosity is a very important property of oils because it affects the rate at which crude oil will spread, the degree to which it will penetrate shoreline substrates, and the selection of mechanical spill countermeasures equipment.

Viscosity measurements may be absolute or relative (sometimes called ‘apparent’). Absolute viscosities are those measured by a standard method, with the results traceable to fundamental units. Absolute viscosities are distinguished from relative measurements made with instruments that measure viscous drag in a fluid, without known and/or uniform applied shear rates.

Sulphur

The sulphur content of a crude oil is important for a number of reasons. Downstream processes such as catalytic cracking and refining will be adversely affected by high sulphur

contents. Crude oil containing a high amount of the impurity (sulfur) is referred to as sour crude oil, when the total sulfur level in the oil is more than 0.5% the oil is called “sour”. The impurity needs to be removed before this lower-quality crude can be refined into petrol, thereby increasing the cost of processing.

The majority of the sulfur in crude oil occurs bonded to carbon atoms, with a small amount occurring as elemental sulfur in solution and as hydrogen sulfide gas. Sour oil can be toxic and corrosive, especially when the oil contains higher levels of hydrogen sulphide, which is a breathing hazard. At low concentrations the gas gives the oil the smell of rotting eggs. For safety reasons, sour crude oil needs to be stabilized by having hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S) removed from it before being transported by oil tankers. This results in a higher-priced gasoline than that made from sweet crude oil.

Basic Sediment and Water Content (BS&W)

Basic sediment and water (BS&W) is a technical specification of certain impurities in crude oil. When extracted from an oil reservoir, the crude oil contains some amount of water and suspended solids from the reservoir. The particulate matter is known as sediment or mud. The water content can vary greatly from field to field, and may be present in large quantities for older fields, or if oil extraction is enhanced using water injection technology.

The bulk of the water and sediment is usually separated at the field to minimize the quantity that needs to be transported further. The residual content of these unwanted impurities is measured as BS&W. Oil refineries may either buy crude to a certain BS&W specification or may alternatively have initial crude oil dehydration and desalting process units that reduce the BS&W to acceptable limits, or a combination thereof.

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