INFLUENCE OF ADVERTISING ON AUDIENCE BODY IMAGE PERCEPTIONS

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ABSTRACT

This is a quantitative study using the survey method to gauge the effects idealized images in advertising have on respondents’ body image. Using the Social Comparison Theory as theoretical background, this study looked into whether individuals were affected by the idealized images employed in advertising. The objective of the study was to explore if Ghanaians suffer body image issues after being exposed to idealized images in advertisements as indicated in literature from other countries. A survey of three hundred and six male and female resident undergraduate students of the University of Ghana was undertaken. Two sets of questionnaires, adjusted to suit each gender, were used in in collecting data. Findings from the study indicated that mere exposure to such images did not have an effect on internalization, suggesting that something else other than exposure was causing respondents to internalize these ideals. Once they internalize these beauty ideals, however, it was linked to the degree to which individuals begun to question and monitor their body’s appearance. The study also showed that males and females did not differ in their acceptance of advertising beauty ideals but rather in how they looked at themselves to be meeting the requirements of such ideals. Once internalization of advertising beauty ideals takes place, women surveilled their bodies more than men did. Finally, the study drew from previous research to test a possible moderating influence of advertising literacy on the relationship between exposure and internalization. Contrary to literature suggesting that advertising literacy would mitigate the effects of exposure to idealized images, findings indicated that advertising literacy did not have any such effect among the sample studied.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

            INTRODUCTION

This section serves as the introductory chapter. It contains the background, statement of the problem, objectives, hypotheses, significance of the study and the summary of the chapter.

            BACKGROUND

In contemporary times, it is almost impossible to consume any kind of media product without being faced with an advertisement. From primetime television, through music videos, magazines, and the World Wide Web, media consumers are frequently exposed to adverts. Organizations resort to advertising their goods and services so that they can influence consumers to patronize what they have to offer.

Emphasis is placed on the consumer and what may draw their attention to make them purchase goods or services. Advertisers have come to believe that physically attractive models are persuasive and draw the attention of consumers to their brands (Bower & Landreth, 2001). The idea is that physically attractive advertising models represent images that audiences aspire to (Bibi & Grydeland, 2014). For this reason, advertisers use physically attractive models who represent idealized beauty notions to draw the attention of the consumer to what they have to offer as well as give them a more competitive edge over competing brands Erdogan (1999).

Keeping in mind that traditional notions of beauty vary across cultures, the use of such idealized models and images can present challenges for the audience. This is especially so where the beauty

ideals used in such adverts reflect beauty notions from other countries. The use of such models has been found to affect consumers, and their self-assessed worthiness (Sohn &Youn, 2013).

Dyer states that though formal advertising began in industrialized countries, it spread through colonialism to other nations. When colonial traders imported goods from their countries into colonies, advertising was their way of informing their targets of their products. Such adverts however contained images that pertained to their culture (Dyer, 2015.p. 64). The images used by colonial traders in their ads were not limited to scenery or ambience but also emphasis was placed on the models and their looks, which included their clothing, hairstyles, body size and skin complexion.

        ADVERTISING AS A CULTURE TRANSMITTER

Taylor (1920) defined “culture as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, acts, morals, law, custom and other capabilities and habits acquired by individuals as members of society.” Scholars such as Wijsen (1999) regard culture as a learned behaviour, which is passed on from generation to generation and can change with time.

Jorda (2010) asserts that in contemporary times there are powerful vehicles through which new values are popularized and transmitted with speed and effectiveness. He points to advertising as one of such vehicles, which plays a very important role in cultural socialization. As Duran puts it, advertising is a major transmitter culture and models in ads consistently present to us ways of behaviour that make uniform our way of being (Duran, 1992). Advertising as a cultural transmitter has led to the assumption that advertising is a cultural artifact. Eguizábal (2009) states that global culture cannot be imagined without certain symbols from multinationals such as Coca-Cola, Nike and Yves Saint-Laurent suggesting that advertising creates and transmits culture, which translates into new social habits and customs.

Vives suggests that advertising is like telling consumers: “have you noticed what is happening in the world?” (Vives, 2005. P. 169) Thus, Vives believes that advertising has monumental social importance because it wields great power to alter cultures, which includes the perception of self.

        CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES OF BEAUTY

Beauty or physical attractiveness is a subjectively elusive concept that has seen varied definitions by different scholars. According to Ibanga (2017), beauty is an essential and luxurious commodity that is not ubiquitous but is rather firmly implanted in cultural contexts. This because the perception of physical attractiveness is a culturally embedded concept which varies from culture to culture. For instance, western ideals of beauty vary from those of African people. Even within the African setting, southern African ideals may differ from western African ideals.

Matiza (2013) asserts that the European view of beauty emphasizes women who are slim and tall whereas in the African sense “a huge woman with big breasts and big buttocks is considered to be an ideal beautiful African woman”. Calogero et al (2007), assert that western cultures place importance on the external features of a person with the emphasis being on body weight and shape. Harrison (2003) and Groesz, Levine and Murnen (2002) have also stated that the western ideal glorifies thinness but this thinness now includes the need for a flat tummy with a thin waist, rounded hips, well-developed breast, flawless skin, long legs, well-defined muscles. With regard to men, western cultures privilege muscularity and lean body (Ridgeway & Tylka, 2005). Again, Tiggemann, Martins and Kirkbride, (2007) agree the western ideal is one concerned with being lean, muscular and tall.

In the African setting, however the ideals of physical attractiveness differ. Scholars such as Hunter and Davis (1992) defined a black (African) man’s attractiveness by their personal relations and responsibility to self, family, their social community. Hammond and Mat-tis (2005) also assert the

fact that for African man it was key to be responsible and accountable for their actions. In the same vein, Chaney (2009) found that black (African) men describe their attractiveness as encompassing a display of maturity, responsibility and self-awareness.

However, African women, beauty notions historically emphasized functional value. For instance, a young girl’s full and rounded breasts suggest she is ready for the breastfeeding responsibilities that come with childbirth (Oloruntoba-Oju, 2007). Similarly, Muhammad (1993, p, 52) demonstrates that in his study of physical attractiveness (beauty) among the people of Sudan, concluded that beauty encompasses “good behaviour, skills knowledge, dress as well as physical features.” Beyond good behaviour, skills knowledge, dress as well as physical features, there are non-functional notions such as dark and shiny skin and heavy calves as has been described in folktales and popular music (Oloruntoba-Oju, 2007). To elaborate non-functional notions of beauty an example is the case of the popular 1960’s Ghanaian highlife song “Serwaa Akoto” where the singer extols the virtues of beauty his sister possessed. He showers praise on her because of her calm and demure nature and self- respect. He believes that her beauty has a calming and peaceful effect on those around her such that there would never be the sound of a gun in her presence. The virtues he extols are ones of both physical and attitudinal beauty, which means beauty goes beyond the physical.