TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of Contents vi
List of tables vii
List of Appendices viii
Abstract ix
Chapter One
Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of Study 15
Operational Definition of Terms 15
Chapter Two
Literature Review 16
Trait theory of substance abuse 16
Instrumental learning theory of substance abuse 18
Sociocultural theory of substance abuse 21
Transtheoretical model of behavior change 26
Empirical Review 31
Summary of Literature Review 41
Hypotheses 43
Chapter Three
Method 44
Participants 44
Instruments 44
Procedure 48
Design and Statistics 49
Chapter Four
Results 50
Chapter Five
Discussion 56
Implications of the Study 58
Limitations of the Study 62
Recommendation 63
Conclusion 64
REFERENCES 66
Appendix A 80
Appendix B 81
Appendix C 82
Appendix D 83
Appendix E 84
LIST OF TABLE
Table
- Table of correlation across variables of interest. 50
- Showing the prediction of ‘Readiness to change’ from control variables, the subscales of spirituality and the subscales of mindfulness spirituality. 52
- Showing the prediction of ‘Readiness to change’ from mindfulness and spirituality 52
- Showing the prediction of ‘Recognition’ from mindfulness and spirituality 53
- Showing the prediction of ‘ambivalence’ from mindfulness and spirituality 53
- Showing the prediction of ‘taking step’ from mindfulness and spirituality 53
List of Appendices
Appendix A 79
Appendix B 80
Appendix C 81
Appendix D 82
Appendix E 83
ABSTRACT
This study used
a cross-sectional design to investigate the influence of dispositional
mindfulness and spirituality on readiness to change cannabis use. Participants
were one hundred and fifty seven (157) cannabis users. Their ages ranged
between 17 – 44 years, with a mean age of 24.50 (SD = 4.28). Three instruments were used for data
collection. Five
Facet Mindfulness Questionnaires (Baer, Smith, Hopkins, Krietemeyer, &
Toney, 2006), Spiritual
Experience Index-Revised (Genia, 1997), and the Stages of Change Readiness and
Treatment Eagerness Scale (SOCRATES 8D) (Miller & Tonigan, 1996). Step wise
multiple regression was the main statistic used for data analysis. Results of
the regression analysis showed that Spiritual support (β = – .297, t =- 3.97, p<.001) and
spiritual openness (β =.35, t =
4. 71, p<.001) significantly predicted readiness to change. Mindfulness
significantly predicted readiness to change (β = .22, t = 2. 80, p<.o1). However among the subscales of
mindfulness, only non-judge predicted readiness to change (β = .168, t = 2.21, p< 05). While
observing, describing, acting with awareness and non-reactivity to inner
experience were not significant predictor of readiness to change. Mindfulness
total significantly predicted the subscale of readiness to change including
taking step (β = .178, t= 2.19,
p<.05); ambivalence (β = .26,
t = 3.31, p<.01); and recognition (β
=.186, t = 2.36, p<.05). Mindfulness and Spirituality were therefore argued
to have potential benefits in the rehabilitation of individuals who abuse
cannabis.
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
It is estimated that between 155 and 250 million people or 3.5% to 5.7% of the world’s population aged 15-64 have used drugs at least once in the last 12 months (United Nations On Drugs and Crime, 2010). Out of this number, it is estimated that approximately one in six problem drug users accesses treatment each year (United Nations on Drugs and Crime, 2014). However, there are large regional disparities, with approximately 1 in 18 problem drug users receiving treatment in Africa (primarily for cannabis use), compared with one in five problem drug users receiving treatment in Western and Central Europe, one in four in Oceania, and one in three in North America., (United Nations on Drugs and Crime, 2014). There is an increasing trend in psychoactive substance use and abuse in many African countries (Adelekan, Ndom, Makanjuola, Parakoyi, Osagbemi, Fagbemi, & Pute 2000; Reddy, Resnicow, Omardien, & Kambaram, 2007). In Nigeria, for example, where substance abuse was uncommon many decades ago, there is today ample visual evidence of drug use on the roadsides and motor parks of most urban centers where young adults could be seen using marijuana (Rasheed & Ismaila, 2010). Industrialization, urbanization and increased exposure to western life style have been noted to contribute to the increasing trend of substances use in Nigeria with alcohol and cigarette acting as gateway drugs to the use of other substance like cocaine, heroine, amphetamine, inhalants and hallucinogens (Abiodun, Adelekan, Ogunremi, Oni, & Obayan, 1994A).
According to World health organization, (1986) a drug is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism alters bodily functions. It is also regarded as a chemical you take that effects the way the body works. Furthermore, a drug is a substance that has a physiological effect when ingested or otherwise introduced into the body, example of these drugs includes, cocaine, heroin, amphetamine, alcohol and marijuana. For most of European and Asian countries, opiates continue to be the main drug of abuse and account for 62% of all treatment demands. In South America, drug related treatment continue to be mainly linked to the use of cocaine (59% of all treatment demand).
However in Africa, the bulk of all treatment demand is linked to cannabis 64% (WHO, 2004). Cannabis, commonly known as marijuana and by numerous other names, is a preparation of the Cannabis plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug and as medicine (Harcout, 2007). Pharmacologically, the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol; it is one of 483 known compounds in the plant (Russo, 2013). Including at least 84 other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol, cannabinol, tetrahydrocannabivarin, (El-Alfy, Ivey, Robinson, Ahmed, Radwan, Slade, Khan, ElSohly, & Rossb, 2010; Fusar-Poli, Crippa, Bhattacharyya, Borgwardt, Allen, Martin-Santos, Seal, Surguladze, O’Carrol, Atakan, Zuardi, & McGuire, 2009), and cannabigerol. According to UNODC (2009), “the amount of THC present in a cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency.” The three main forms of cannabis products are the flower, resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil). The UNODC states that cannabis often contains 5% THC content, resin “can contain up to 20% THC content”, and that “Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC content.
Cannabis is consumed in many different ways (Golub, 2012). Smoking, which typically involves inhaling vaporized cannabinoids (“smoke”) from small pipes, bongs (portable versions of hookahs with water chamber), paper-wrapped joints or tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts, roach clips, and other items (Tasman, Kay, Lieberman, First & Maj, 2011).
Vaporizer, which heats any form of cannabis to 165–190 °C (329–374 °F) (Rosenthal, 2002), causing the active ingredients to evaporate into a vapor without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 157 °C (315 °F) at 760 mmHg pressure).
Cannabis tea, which contains relatively small concentrations of THC because THC an oil (lipophilic) and is only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter). Cannabis tea is made by first adding a saturated fat to hot water (e.g. cream or any milk except skim) with a small amount of cannabis (Gieringer & Rosenthal, 2008).
Edibles: Where cannabis is added as an ingredient to one of a variety of foods. Marijuana vending machines for selling or dispensing cannabis are in use in the United States and are planned to be used in Canada (Blackwell & Tom, 2013).
