ABSTRACT
Community Disaster Risk Reduction (CDRR) enable communities to build resilience in coping with disasters. However, sustainability issues continue to impact Community Disaster Risk Reduction projects. Therefore, there is need for assessing factors that influence sustainability of disaster risk reduction projects. The purpose of this study was to identify factors influencing sustainability of community disaster risk reduction projects implemented by Order of St Augustine in Evurore ward, Embu County. This study sought to establish the extent at which community participation, community disaster risk awareness, community environment conservation practices and agricultural extension services influence sustainability of community disaster risk reduction projects. This was a cross-sectional survey in which 393 participants were sampled and 374 accepted to participate representing a 95% response rate. Stratified proportionate sampling was used in sampling participants from Kamarandi, Ndurumori and Iria Itune wards. Data was collected by use of structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) were used in analyzing characteristics and study variables. Correlation analysis test was used to assess the association between variables and sustainability of CDRR projects. Statistical Package Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 23 was used in analysis. The results indicated a significant and strong positive correlation between community participation and sustainability of community disaster risk reduction projects as correlation factor r=0.789, p=0.002<0.05. There was a significant and strong positive correlation between community disaster risk awareness and sustainability of community disaster risk Reduction projects (r=0.773, p=0.000<0.05). Equally there was a significant and strong positive correlation between environmental conservation practices and sustainability of community disaster risk reduction projects as correlation factor r=0.725, p=0.001<0.05. A significant and strong positive exists between utilization of extension services and sustainability of community disaster risk reduction projects (r=0.769, p=0.011<0.05). Drought is the most common type of disaster risk, however not all respondents had made adequate preparation towards disasters. There is high uptake of conservation practices that promote long-term sustainability of CDRR project. Most farmers had received extension services, however there is need to scale up access to services such as linking farmers to markets for them to sell their produce. On overall knowledge gained from extension services can be considered as a critical factor in sustainability of CDRR projects.
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
The impact of disasters on community livelihood is dependent on level of vulnerability existing in the community when natural hazards occur (Hallegatte, Vogt-Schilb, Bangalore, Rozenberg, 2017; Twigg, 2015). Accordingly, the vulnerability of a community is shaped by human practices economic, social, cultural, and institutional which define the environment within which members of a community live in (United Nations International Strategy on Disaster Reduction, 2015). Vulnerability can be assessed in terms of level of poverty and in terms of environmental degradation (UNISDR, 2015). Risk reduction is an important approach used in identifying, assessing and reducing vulnerability of communities when it comes to occurrence of natural hazards with community disaster risk reduction being one of the recommended approaches (UNISDR, 2015).
Community disaster risk reduction (CDRR) approach intends to reduce vulnerability and risks by empowering individuals and communities living in disaster prone areas (Binas, 2010). CDRR works on the basis that natural hazards are caused by human activities. The aim of CDRR is to prevent hazards, mitigate against risk and reduce vulnerability through building both individual and community support systems (Binas, 2010). The process of CDRR involves bringing individuals together to address a risk and collectively pursue disaster risk reduction measures. The target is to create communities that cohesively deals with conflicts, address risks and implement tasks that help them bounce back when natural hazards occur (Binas, 2010). CDRR considers that disasters are localized within a community, the first responders are normally people within the community and that communities are the foundation of any society, nation and the world (Binas, 2010). CDRR consist of seven steps which are the: Selection of communities based on disaster history; understanding the community at risk; risk and vulnerability assessment; risk reduction planning; grass root implementation; formal endorsements by local and national government and participatory monitoring and evaluation( Lassa, Boli, Nakmofa, Fanggidae, Ofong & Leonis, 2018).
CDRR approach has been implemented worldwide with considerable success and failures in equal measure. For example, in Indonesia, CDRR approach was launched in late 1990’s in
Toineke a village in Eastern Indonesia which had experienced humanitarian crisis arising from El-Nino, droughts and floods (Lassa et al., 2018). The implementation of CDRR in the area realised that disaster specialist and community had different perception on risks and hazards. While specialist considered droughts and floods as the only hazards, the community considered lack of skills, human resources, lack of market access and lack of farming technology as risks that affected their ability to cope with effects of natural hazards (Lassa et al., 2018). One of the important lessons learnt through participatory processes was that community elders identified the source of risks and vulnerabilities facing the community for a long time. This enabled implementation of projects that reduced floods and droughts in the area. Considerably Lassa et al (2018) concluded that CDRR planning should capture all aspects of people’s lives such as shelter, education, nutrition and social dimensions. In China, CDRR approach has been used to build capacities of communities, improve policy and laws on disaster management (Yi & Zhao, 2013). However, the success of CDRR remains affected by lack of community participation, inefficient community organizations and failure of local communities to adopt a culture of safety first.
In sub-Saharan Africa, CDRR has been implemented in several countries, most significantly is the use of CDRR approach in managing veld fires in Zimbabwe (Dube, 2015). The CDRR measures involve; early warning systems, access to emergency response, evacuation plans, education and training of communities. In evaluating the effectiveness of CDRR activities, Dube (2015) observed that local communities were not well prepared to manage veld fires despite existence of CDRR activities in the area. He observed that local district civil protection unit lacked experience in disaster risk reduction which then meant that fire disasters would continue to occur. The three case studies discussed above suggest there are issues with sustainability of CDRR activities in different communities. Therefore, it is necessary to identify factors that affect sustainability of CDRR projects in communities.
Sustainability of CDRR is important if such projects are to achieve their aims of improving living conditions and quality of life of local communities (Ceptureanu, Gabriel, Luchian, & Iuliana, 2018). The need for sustainable CDRR projects arises from the fact that initiating the projects is costly and early termination often leads to negative effects such as lose of trust from local communities where such projects are implemented (Ceptureanu, Gabriel, Luchian, & Iuliana, 2018). Ceptureanu et al (2018) propose that sustainability of community projects be
evaluated using indicators occurring at three levels. These are: Individual level which comprise of indicators that assess benefits of CDRR projects to individuals or households, organization level which focuses on continuation of program activities within the host-organization and community level which consists of indicators that measure capacity of the community to continue with the project (Ceptureanu et al., 2018).
Developing an understanding on factors that influence sustainability of CDRR projects is important since just like other community-based projects its success depends to certain features in the community. These features include the fact that CDRR relies on community-based approach to identify community resources that will help in risk reduction and developing solutions that support the community needs. Hence CDRR projects that correctly identifies community resources are likely to remain sustainable over a long time (UNISDR, 2015; Ceptureanu et al., 2018). Another feature in the success of CDRR projects is community acceptance and involvement. To ensure sustainable projects it is important to realise that community members have better understanding and are suited in using their skills and resources in solving their problems (Ceptureanu et al., 2018). Failure to consider community acceptance and involvement often leads to collapse of community projects (Mulwa, 2010). The success of CDRR projects also requires implementation of projects that do not undermine the socio-cultural practices of the community. CDRR projects that undermine cultural practices would be rejected by communities thus affecting its sustainability (Oino, Towett, Kirui & Luvega, 2015).
Disaster risk reduction (DRR) activities in Kenya is under the management of national DRR. Disaster Risk Management is coordinated by the Directorate of Special Programmes under the Ministry of Devolution and Planning and Ministry of Interior and Coordination of National government (United Nations Development Program, 2018). Some of the projects implemented at national levels includes: Post-Election Violence Livelihoods Recovery Project whose aim was to restore and expand livelihoods opportunities for communities affected by the post- election violence in 2007/2008. Drought recovery program set up to improve the resilience of communities in Turkana and Garissa counties which were worst hit by recent droughts. Most recently closed project is the refugee host project which sought to reduce conflicts, improving
living conditions and mitigate effects of drought on communities hosting refugees (UNDP, 2018).
Apart from the National level projects, several CDRR projects have been implemented across the country. Most notable ones include: Rehabilitation of rangelands in Walda location, Moyale County with aim of increasing pasture to mitigate against shortage of livestock feed during drought period. Another CDRR is the Merti Integrated Development Programme (MID-P) whose focus was to increase advocacy of community which has resulted in community led efforts to counter creation of wildlife conservancy in the Chari rangeland. The restocking of load camels in Marsabit North contributed in reduction of women load and costs of water especially during famine (Gordon, 2012).
In Evurore Ward, one significant CDRR project has been implemented by St Order of Augustine at Ishiara Parish. This is a community resilience and climate change adaptation project in an area prone to drought. The aim of the project is to build cooperative community approach to climate change adaptation, natural resource management and disaster risk preparedness. This project aims to increase food security, diversify household income and thus enhance the resilience of residents when faced with droughts. The CDRR project is being implemented using two approach; Water for Food Security and Climate Change Adaptation and Community Resilience. Projects under water for food security involves provision of irrigation water, farming inputs and capacity building on sustainable natural resource management. While climate change adaptation and community resilience focuses on providing education on agriculture, farming practices, training on natural resource management and building nutritional capacity at household level. The implementation of these projects has brought about significant benefits at household levels and within communities involved. However, extensive assessment on factors that would affect the sustainability of such projects has not been conducted despite the success of the projects. Therefore, this study sought to assess how perceived factors related to community governance structure such as community participation, community disaster risk awareness, community environmental conservation practices and agricultural extension services would influence sustainability of CDRR projects in Evurore Ward. This is important since even well-purposed
projects can increase vulnerability of communities if sustainable practices are not incorporated early in the project.
