REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

creative forces lists and creativity. Doppelt (2009) assessed creative thinking in desig n-based learning. The findings show that pupils learned to document their d sign process and their projects demonstrated various levels of creative thinking sk ills. Kampylis (2009) revealed that teachers’ practices are influenced mainly by inconsistent implicit theories and by wide spread m isconceptions about creativity. In addition several factors inhibit teachers in foster ing students’ creative thinking, such Review of Related Literature 109 as inadequate initial teacher education and in-serv ic training and lack of time and means. Roskos-Ewoldsen, Black and Mccown (2008) investiga ted age-related changes in creative thinking. The findings revealed that there were age-related declines on both phases of the creative invention t ask, but not on the Torrance test of creative thinking. These declines were noted by bot h the younger and older raters. After adjusting for working memory capacity, howeve r, age-related differences on the creative invention task were not significant. Almeida, Prieto, Ferrando, Oliveira and Ferrandiz (2008) tested the construct validity of Torrance test of creative thinking base d on data collected in Spain and Portugal. According to this, those cognitive functi ons supposedly present on a subject’s performance are not so strong as to expla in the variance in scores. Elaboration factors assume some variance explanatio n, but the main factors are identified with the products in each subtest, sugge sting the importance of format, content and demand on TTCT specific tasks. Glassner and Schwarz (2007) reported rich bonds be tween creative thinking and antilogos evaluation and between their developm ents. The study showed that effective antilogos evaluation involves both critic al and creative thinking. The conclusion is that antilogos evaluation is archetyp ical in the sense that tasks involving both critical and creative thinking must be of argu mentative in nature. Ebrahim (2006) compared the creative thinking and reasoning abilities of deaf and hearing children. The canonical correlation ana lyses revealed one significant dimension in both deaf and hearing children. The mu ltivariate analysis of variance Review of Related Literature 110 revealed that there are some similarities and diffe rences between the deaf and hearing samples regarding creative thinking abilities. Memmert (2006) proved the influence of a diversifi ed sport enrichment programme on the development of creative thinking i n team ball sports among gifted children. A contrast between a gifted control group and a non-gifted treatment group showed significant improvement in the creative perf ormance of the gifted children. Kim, Cramond and Bandalos (2006) conducted confirm atory factor analyses for both the two-factor model and one-factor model of creativity to determine which fit the data better. The findings indicated that th e structure of Torrance test of creative thinking scores is consistent with a two-factor the ory. It also indicated that model parameters for gender groups are more invariant tha for grade levels in determining the fit of the model. Aslan and Puccio (2006) developed and tested a Tur kish version of Torrance’s tests of creative thinking on adults. Analysis of t he scores showed a high degree of correspondence between the English and Turkish lang uage versions. A cross-cultural comparison was made to data previously collected in the United States. A number of significant differences emerged between the Turkish and United States samples, such as Verbal Fluency, Verbal Originality, and Abstract ness of Titles. Lee (2005) investigated the relationship between c r ative thinking ability and creative personality of preschoolers. The results revealed that the imagination factor and fluency factor in the language domain of creati v hinking ability were related significantly to four factors of creative personali ty – curiosity, independence, run-arisk, and task commitment. Review of Related Literature 111 Cramond, Matthews-Morgan, Bandalos and Zuo (2005) in an article updated the information about the Torrance Tests of Creativ Thinking (TTCT) by reporting predictive validity. The results of the analyses of the 40-year follow-up on the TTCT resulting in a structural equation model, demonstra ted the validity of the TTCT for predicting creative achievement 40 years after its administration. Urban (2005) designed the Test for Creative Thinki ng-Drawing Production to mirror a more holistic concept of creativity than t he mere quantitatively oriented, traditional divergent thinking tests. The drawing p roduction is evaluated by means of a set of criteria, which at the same time represent the underlying test construct. The test has been normed with various age and ability g roups. Middleton (2005) in a paper creative thinking, Val ues and Design and Technology Education, explored a range of creative thinking strategies, and of their possible applications in design, and goes on to arg ue that the strategies and settings that promote creative thinking in design and techno logy make the area not only one that is suitable for addressing ethics and values, but that it may be one of the major reasons for including design and technology program mes in school curricula. Clapham (2004) compared scores on two divergent th i king tests, the Verbal and the Figural Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT), with scores on two creativity interest inventories. The results proved that creative interest inventories are not measuring the same construct as divergent think ing tests and that both are distinct from academic aptitude and achievement. They also s upport the contention that divergent thinking is multidimensional. Rudowicz (2004) explored the applicability of the T st of Creative ThinkingDrawing Production (TCT-DP) in the Hong Kong Chines e cultural context. The Review of Related Literature 112 findings indicated that psychometric properties of the test were comparable to those obtained for European samples. However, the stabili ty of Humor and Unconventionality “b” scales is very low. No sex di fferences were observed with regard to the test scores. Bakr (2004) examined the efficacy of some proposed activities based on five strategies: brainstorming, attribute listing, morph ological synthesis, SCAMPER and CoRT for developing creative thinking of English le arners at the preparatory stage. Results indicated that the proposed activities incr eased students’ creative thinking abilities like fluency, flexibility, originality an d elaboration as well as academic achievement. It was also found that the proposed ac tivities based on divergent thinking strategies were effective in improving Eng lish learners’ creative thinking at the preparatory stage. Minton (2003) compared the creative thinking abili ties of students taking dance class to students not taking dance class in h igh school. Comparison of changes in both groups’ overall TTCT scores demonstrated no significant differences. However, significant differences were found between the two groups for originality and abstractness of title TTCT subscale scores. Wei ck (2003) in an article titled Out of context: Using metaphor to encourage creative th inking in strategic management courses, showed how to foster creative thinking by using materials and exercises based on metaphor. It also explained how to use met aphor-based readings from nonbusiness sources and included a reading list and application examples. Rothenberg (2002) tried to assess whether the capa city for creative thinking among medical students is related to academic advan cement. The results showed a significant association between ranking in the uppe r half of the group and creative Review of Related Literature 113 thinking scores, indicating that creative thinking may be an asset in medical education for educationally disadvantaged students. Shahrin, Toh, Ho and Wong (2002) examined the rela tionship between the creative thinking and scientific problem-solving ab ility of 13 to 14-year-old females. The students did well in the preliminary trialing s tage and were more proficient in interpreting and performing process skills. The oth er three components, communication, planning, and reflecting, showed low er relative performance values Strom and Strom (2002) provided the recommendation s for promoting students’ creative thinking including better teache r training; use of cooperative teams; combining media tools and teacher instructional ski ls; detection of conditions that contribute to boredom; avoiding continuous classroo m r utines; encouraging students to take initiative for constructive use of unschedu l time; and providing opportunities for creative abilities. Priest (2002) focused on ways to develop student c reative thinking, improvisation, and composition skills in instrument al classes. The study provided suggestions, such as the importance of offering stu dents creative opportunities, supplying examples, giving control to students, and e couraging expressive integrity. Flack (2001) discussed how creative thinking can b e encouraged in students through such classic tools as brainstorming and the productive thinking elements of fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. It described how fairy tales can be used to foster these thinking skills and suggested classroom activities. Lawson (2001) presented a model of creative and cr itical thinking in which analogical reasoning is used to link planes of thou g t and generate ideas that are then tested by employing an “if/and/then” pattern of rea soning. It also presented data Review of Related Literature 114 suggesting that such thinking skills develop first n familiar and observable contexts before they can be used in less familiar and unobse rvable contexts. Saeki, Fan and Van Dusen (2001) compared creative th nking of American and Japanese college stud