CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Background to the Study
Unhealthy risk-taking behaviours among young people have over the years been a major concern both to the government and the adult population. This issue has attracted a lot of attention so much so that programmes are being initiated both by governmental and non-governmental organization with a view to curbing this menace. The emergence of exploratory and risk-taking behaviours in adolescents is often described as a normal developmental phenomenon marked by the onset of major changes in biological, psychological, and social processes (Stanton, Spirito, Donaldson, & Boergers, 2003). Lynn (1997) noted that, since adolescents need to take risks as a normal part of growing up, parents should assist adolescents to find healthy opportunities to do so. Healthy risk-taking, is not only important in itself, but can help prevent unhealthy risk-taking behaviour. World Health Organization-WHO (1948) defined health as a ‘‘state of complete physical, mental, social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’’ (p.13). In others words, one can be free from disease or infirmity and yet be unhealthy. Formation of healthy lifestyle is an essential precondition for health and well-being for realization of a person’s full potentials. Hornby (2000) defined healthy as having good health and not likely to become ill. Healthy describes a person who is rarely ill or things that are good for one’s health.
Risk is a concept that denotes potential negative impact to an asset or some characteristics of value that may arise from present process or future event. Risk is often used synonymously with the probability of a known loss (Ilona, 2006). According to Proton (1997), healthy risk-taking behaviour is a positive tool in an adolescent’s life for discovering and consolidating his or her identity. While unhealthy risk-taking behaviour involves action or behaviour that could result into negative outcome, behaviour which the person performed may not consider risky, but that can have negative consequences. For example, a child playing with a gun may not consider this dangerous as he or she may have seen people on TV doing this or even an adult known to them, but clearly it is potentially dangerous (Ben-zur & Reshef-kfir, 2003). Reber (1995) defined risk as an action that jeopardizes something of value. The object that is threatened may be physical, social or culturally valued psychological entity such as self-esteem. For example, when an individual involves oneself in an action that results to unpleasant outcome, it is referred to as risk-taking.
Proto (1997) stated that risk-taking behaviours can be group into healthy and unhealthy. Healthy risk-taking behaviours include traveling, making new friends, participating in sports, development of artistic skill, making good grade in school, constructive contrition to the community, participating in religious activities while unhealthy risk-taking behaviours include violence, cigarette smoking, reckless driving, alcoholism, or substance abuse, jumping from height, rebelliousness, unprotected sexual intercourse, fighting, carrying weapons with intent to harm, running into traffic, running away from home and eating disorders. Examples of eating disorders are anorexia, nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating. Anorexia nervosa is a complicated psychological illness, most common in female adolescents. There is minimal food intake leading to loss of weight and sometimes, death from starvation. Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder involving repeated episodes of uncontrolled consumption of large quantities of food in a short time while binge eating is (binge-purge syndrome) self- induced vomiting after meals (Roper, 1989). Inherent in all these activities is the possibility of failure.
Porto further maintained that all adolescent take risk as a normal part of growing up, and that risk-taking is the tool an adolescent uses to define and develop his or her identity. In all, healthy risk-taking behaviour is a valuable experience, but adolescents’ risk-taking only becomes negative when when the risks are dangerous to health and well-being. Eaton et al (2005) asserted that risk-taking whether healthy or unhealthy, is simply part of the adolescent’s struggle to test out an identity by providing self-definition and separation from others, including parents. The present study will focus on the following types of unhealthy risk-taking behaviours eating disorder behaviours, violent behaviours, unprotected sexual behaviour (activities), substance abuse behaviours and delinquent behaviours.
Nwachukwu (1992) defined behaviour as ‘‘the response of an organism to its environment’’ (p.10). This implies that environmental factors serve as stimuli to actions, and risk-taking behaviours cannot be exception. Ronald and Seymour (2007) defined behaviour as the action or actions of an object or organism usually in relation to the environment. They explained that behaviour can be conscious or unconscious, voluntary or involuntary. Human behviour (and that of other organisms and mechanisms) can be common, unusual, acceptable or unacceptable. Bebaviour, therefore is regarded unhealthy risk-taking behaviour when the outcome produces a negative consequence to the individual and the environment.    Â
          Adolescence is the developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, entered approximately at 10 to 19 years of age (Santrock, 2001) He further explained that adolescence begins with rapid physical changes and dramatic gains in height and weight; changes in body contour; and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, development of pubic and facial hair and deepening of the voice. At this point in development, the pursuits of independence and identity are prominent though it is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More and more time is spent outside of the family during this period.
Griffiths, (1999) stated that adolescence can be a specifically turbulent period as well as a dynamic period of one’s life. It has been identified as a period in which young people develop abstract thinking abilities, become aware of their sexuality, develop a clear sense of psychology, identity and increase their independence from parents. WHO (1997) described adolescence as a period of turmoil during which young people must learn new social roles, develop new relationship undergo significant physical and hormonal changes and make decision that will affect their future. WHO further explained that adolescents naturally experience feelings of confusion, stress, self-doubt, peer pressure and the drive to succeed while simultaneously confronting issues about romance and sexuality and beginning to tackle ideas like the meaning of one’s individual life in a vast and seemly incomprehensive universe. Self concepts must and do change: adolescents test the boundaries, take risks and strive to develop unique identities while retaining strong family and social networks. It is a hazardous time of life, leading to considerable emotional and psychological stress that is exacerbated by a lack of appropriate coping strategies in solving their personal problems. Adolescence therefore is a period when adolescents are at higher risk of engaging in unhealthy risky behaviours.
Lynn (1997) further explained that adolescents often offer subtle clues about their negative risk- taking behaviours through what they say about behaviour of friends and family, including parents. She further opined that the term adolescent, refers to a young person who is developing into an adult. At this stage the adolescent’s thoughts is centered in the present regardless of any negative outcome of his actions that could lead to unhealthy risk-taking behaviours.
Byrnes, Miller, and Schafer, (1999), gender has been identified as having an association with unhealthy risk-taking behaviours. They further explained that gender difference varied with age and context. For example, risky driving was more likely among males, and increased with age, and generally males were more to take risks driving than females; there was an apparent lack of discernment among men and boys that is males took more risks even when it was clearly a bad idea. Females took fewer risks even in apparently safe situations, thus experienced less success; there were developmental increase in risk-taking and therefore of the gender gap; the increase in gender with age is due to: biological maturation; cognitive scope example future time perspective; self-perception of the social environment: parental and peer influence; personal values; risk perception and characteristics of the peer group. Pyszcznki (2002) made similar observations. Level of education has been indicated by Grunbaum et al., (2001). Similar association was reported by Weitzman, Guttmachers, Weinberg, and Kapadia, (2003). They stressed that students in school with low response rates resulting from high rates of absenteeism have different demographic characteristics and engage in more risk behaviours than students with low absenteeism and high response rates. The above reports underscore the implication of these factors as variables for the present study.
