TABLE OF CONTENT
Title Page
Title Page – – – – – – – – – – i
Dedication – – – – – – – – – – ii
Declaration – – – – – – – – – – iii
Certification – – – – – – – – – – iv
Acknowledgement – – – – – – – – – v
Table of Content – – – – – – – – – vii
List of Table – – – – – – – – – xi
List of Figures – – – – – – – – – xii
Abstract – – – – – – – – – – xiii
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction – – – – – – – – – 1
1.2 Scope of Study – – – – – – – – 4
1.3 Aim of Study – – – – – – – – 4
1.4 Significance of the Study – – – – – – – 5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review – – – – – – – – 6
2.1 Haematopoiesis – – – – – – – – 6
2.2 Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs) – – – – – 6
2.3 Locations of Blood Formation – – – – – – 8
2.4 Maturation of Stem Cells – – – – – – – 8
2.5 Red Blood Cells (RBCs) – – – – – – – 9
2.5.1 Red Blood Cell Count – – – – – – – 9
2.5.2 Red Blood Cell Parameters – – – – – – 10
2.6 White Blood Cells – – – – – – – – 12
2.6.1 Classes of White Blood Cells – – – – – – 13
2.6.2 White Blood Cell Count – – – – – – – 15
2.7 Platelets or Thrombocytes – – – – – – 18
2.7.1 Thrombopoiesis – – – – – – – – 18
2.7.2 Platelet Count – – – – – – – – 20
2.7.3 Thrombocytopenia – – – – – – – – 20
2.8 Diabetes Mellitus – – – – – – – – 22
2.8.1 Types of Diabetes Mellitus – – – – – – 23
2.8.2 Causes of Type II Diabetes Mellitus – – – – – 24
2.8.3 Hematological Changes in Diabetic Conditions – – – 25
2.8.4 Treatment Of Diabetes Mellitus (DM) – – – – – 26
2.9 Terminalia catappa – – – – – – – – 30
2.9.1 Anti-Inflammatory, Analgesic and Modulatory Activity – – 32
2.9.2 Anti-Diabetic Activity – – – – – – – 33
2.9.3 Hepatoprotective activity – – – – – – – 34
2.9.4 Anti-Parasitic and Anti-Fungal Activities – – – – 35
2.9.5 ACE Inhibitory Activity – – – – – – – 35
2.9.6 Anti-Ageing Activity – – – – – – – 35
2.9.7 Anticancer Activity – – – – – – – 36
2.9.8 Toxicology – – – – – – – – – 37
2.10 ASPIRIN (Acetyl Salicylic Acid- ASA) – – – – 38
2.11 Meloxicam – – – – – – – – – 39
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.0 Materials and Apparatus Used – – – – – – 41
3.1 Collection and Identification of Plant Material- – – – 43
3.2 Preparation of Aqueous Extract – – – – – – 43
3.3 Animal Preparation – – – – – – – 43
3.4 Experimental Design – – – – – – – 44
3.5 Diabetes Induction – – – – – – – – 44
3.6 Extract Administration – – – – – – – 45
3.7 Insulin Administration – – – – – – – 45
3.8 Meloxicam Administration – – – – – – 45
3.9 Aspirin Administration – – – – – – – 45
3.10 Collection of Blood Sample – – – – – – 46
3.11 Analysis of Blood Parameters – – – – – – 46
3.12 Statistical Analysis – – – – – – – 46
CHAPTER FOUR : RESULTS
4.1 Red Blood Cell Count – – – – – – – 47
4.2 White Blood Cell Count – – – – – – – 49
4.3. Platelet Count – – – – – – – – 51
4.4 Neutrophil Levels – – – – – – – – 53
4.5 Eosinophil Levels – – – – – – – – 53
4.6 Basophil Levels – – – – – – – – 54
4.7 Monocyte Levels – – – – – – – – 54
4.8 Lymphocyte Levels – – – – – – – 55
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Discussion – – – – – – – – – 57
5.2 Conclusion – – – – – – – – – 60
5.3 Recommendation – – – – – – – – 61
References – – – – – – – – – – 62
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Table showing grouping of animals. The animals were divided into Nine (9) groups of Seven (6) animals per group – – 44
Table 2: Table showing the effects 130mg/kg BW of Terminalia catappa leaf extract, Effects of 30mg/kg BW of Aspirin,2mg/kg BW of meloxicam and 0.75µ/kg BW of insulin on the Differential White Blood Count of rats (n=6, *p>0.05 not significant; p<0.05:significant; p<0.01 highly significant 56
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Red blood cells in diabetic rats treated with extract,aspirin, meloxicam and insulin compared with control.Values are Mean ± SEM    –       –       –       –       –       –       49
Figure 2. White blood cell count in diabetic rats treated with extract, aspirin,meloxicam and insulin compared with control. Values are Mean ± SEM. a =p<0.05 vs non-diabetic control, b = p<0.05 vs diabetic control group,c = p<0.05 vs extract treated group    –          –          –          51
ABSTRACT
The changes in some haematological parameters in alloxan-induced diabetic rats treated with Terminaliacatappa leaves extract and Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) was studied. 54 male albino wister rats were selected into nine (9) groups of six (6) rats each. Group 1 was control which received 1mg/kg of deionized water, group 2 was extract treated control group and was given 130mg/kg per body weight (BW) of Terminalia catappa leaf extract, group 3 was diabetic control group and received 1mg/kg BW of deionized water, group 4 being diabetic treated with extract was given 130mg/kg BW of T. catappa leaves extract, group 5 was diabetic treated with aspirin received 30mg/kg BW of aspirin, group 6 was diabetic treatd with meloxicam received 2mg/kg BW of meloxicam, group 7 which was diabetic treated with combination of the extract and aspirin received 130mg/kg BW extract and 30mg/kg BW of aspirin, group 8 which were diabetic treated with extract and meloxicam wewre administered with 130mg/kg BW of extract and 2mg/kg BW of meloxicam, group 9 was diabetic treated with insulin was given 0.75µ/kg BW of exogenous insulin. Diabetes was induced intraperitoneally to the test groups with 150mg/kg BW of alloxan monohydrate and the experiment lasted for 14 days. Blood samples were obtained by cardiac puncture and the results showed significant changes in WBC count and in some of its indices. While there was a significant (p<0.05) decrease in neutrophils, monocytes and lymphocytes, there was significant (p<0.05) increase in theeosinophils and basophils in both diabetic and non-diabetic conditions. Known NSAIDs were used separately and in combination with the extraxt to compare its effect on WBC count which serves as markers for inflammation associated with diabetes. The result showed significant increases in some and decrease in others. It can therefore be said from this research that, suppression of the defence system as seen in the experiment implies that the use of the extract in doses targeted at reducing blood glucose can be detrimental to the defense system of the body.
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
Blood is a fluid which flows constantly throughout the body to provide available nutrients, oxygen and removes waste. It is a living tissue consisting of cells within a liquid matrix and proteins are suspended in it which makes it different from other body fluids like tears, saliva, mucus and urine hence, it is thicker than ordinary water (O’Connell et al., 2012).
Red blood cells which carry oxygen to tissues have a count (RBC count) range between 4.7 to 6.1 million cells per microliter (ml) in males and 4.4 – 5.4 million cells per ml in females (Evans et al., 2008).
The white blood cells which mainly fight infections have a count (WBC count) range between 4.00 to 11.0×109/l (Shividel et al., 2011), and the normal blood platelet which helps in blood clotting ranges its count from 150 to 400 x 109/l (Rogers et al., 2011).
Some blood parameters could be affected by diabetic conditions directly or indirectly as a result of drugs administered and also, in the course of treatment of same. Reports have suggested that in diabetic conditions, the defense mechanism against oxidizing molecules is weakened and the red blood cells are less deformed than those of a healthy individual which implies that, there is significant increase in rigidity on the red blood cell membrane (Carroll et al., 2006). In the case of platelets, Danmick et al., (2005), in his research reported that there was increased reactivity in diabetic patients when compared with non-diabetic subjects on a combined aspirin and Clopidorel treatment (Rogers et al, 2011).
In the treatment of diabetes, certain hypoglycemic agents like Sulphonamides, Biguanides and insulin (N’gussen et al, 2011) alongside exercise and diet balancing (Richard et al; 1993) are used. The negative economic implications of diabetes as a disease coupled with the physical discomfort of long term use of injectable makes it necessary to explore other options alternative to the use of injections. This brings to bare, the preferable options of using medicinal plants which is widely advocated for by the World Health Organisation (Tan et al; 1991).
In addition to reports about the hypoglycemic properties of various plant extracts, Terminalia Catappa is among those widely reported to reduce blood glucose (Ahmed et al; 2005). Another study reports that the plant which possesses anti-inflamatory properties without affecting the estrous cycle and the dosage was also found to possess non-sedative property in a study carried out by Ratnasooriya et al., (2002).
NSAIDs are non-narcotic agents that provide analgesic (painkilling) and antipyretic (fever reducing) effects and in higher doses, anti-inflamatory effects (Hanson and Maddoson 2008; Hunter et al; 2011). NSAIDs are classified by their chemical structure as well as by their specific inhibitory activity for enzymes (Hunter et al., 2011). They produce their therapeutic effects through the inhibition of prostaglandis synthesis (Glillman et al., 1985; Klassen 2001) and are usually used for treatment of acute and or chronic conditions where pain and inflammation are present (Hunter et al., 2011). The most prominent of this group of drugs, includes aspirin, ibuprofen and naproxen, which are available over the counter in most countries (Warden 2010).
Aspirin has been reported to be used in preventing heart attack and strokes (Hall and Lorenc, 2010), color rectal cancer (Manzano and perez- segura, 2012) as well as myocardial infarction (BNF, 2003).
Some new NSAIDs with selective COX2 inhibitory effect is a major pharmacologic milestone in therapeutics, there, they are a new version of NSAIDs. Meloxicam is a new and very popular anti-inflamatory and analgesic drug related to the group. At high doses, meloxicam may also inhibit the COX-1 pathway, resulting in decreased production of the physiologically important and protective prostagandis (Gassel et al., 2005; Kirchgessner, 2006).
Anti-Inflammatory drugs have been reported to reduce some blood paraters like PCV and Hb concentrations which indicates that they are capable of causing anaemia and reducing the amount of oxygen carrying capacity of tissues in animals according to the submissions of by Oyedeji et al, 2013; Ahmad et al., ( 2013). The latter in his work, showed that NSAIDs have the ability to increase WBC significantly. T. Catappa leaves extracts have shown significant anti-hyperglycemic activities by improving diabetes mellitus complications like body weight, lipid profiles, serum creatinine, Also, renewal of B-cells in total diabetes reflects balance between the renewal and loss of these cells. It was suggested that regeneration of islet B-cells following destruction by alloxan may be the primary cause of the recovery from the effects of the drug (Gorray et al, 1986).
