THE BIOCHEMICAL ROLES OF TANNINS AND FLAVONOIDS

TABLE OF CONTENT

CONTENTS                                                                 PAGE

Title Page    –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        i

Certification         –        –        –        –        –        –        –        ii

Dedication –        –        –        –        –        –        –        –        iii

Acknowledgements        –        –        –        –        –        –        iv

Table of Contents –        –        –        –        –        –        –        v

CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION       –        –        –        1

CHAPTER TWO: DIABETES MELLITUS

• Causes of Diabetes
  • Signs and Symptoms
  • Types of Diabetes
  • Pathogenesis of Diabetes
  • Types of Antioxidants and their role

CHAPTER THREE: CAUSES OF OXIDATIVE

STRESS IN DIABETES

•  Increased Free Radical production
  • Mitochondrial sources and non – mitochondrial sources
  • Decreased antioxidant defenses
  • Antioxidant treatment in diabetes

CHAPTER FOUR

• SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
  •           Summary
  •           Conclusion

References

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder with a rapidly increasing prevalence (Golbidi et al., 2012) highlighting the importance of continued research and the need for novel methods to both prevent and treat this pandemic. Although obesity and physical inactivity are known to be major risk factors for type 2 diabetes (T2DM), recent evidence suggests that oxidative stress may contribute to the pathogenesis of T2DM by increasing insulin resistance or impairing insulin secretion (Montonen et al., 2004).

While diabetes management has largely focused on control of hyperglycemia, the rising burden of this disease is mainly correlated to its vascular complications. This is reflected by a 4-fold increase in the incidence of coronary artery disease, a 10-fold increase in peripheral vascular disease, and a 3- to 4-fold higher mortality rate with as much as 75% of diabetics ultimately dying from vascular disease (Basha et al., 2012).Oxidative stress may play a role in the pathophysiology of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Consequently, the question of whether antioxidants could have a beneficial effect on reducing the risk of these conditions, especially cardiovascular disease, has been intensively investigated, but the results remain inconclusive. If antioxidants play a protective role in the pathophysiology of diabetes and cardiovascular disease, understanding the physiological status of antioxidant concentrations among people at high risk for developing these conditions, such as people with the metabolic syndrome, is of interest (Ford et al., 2003).

Direct evidence of oxidative stress in diabetes is based on studies that focused on the measurement of oxidative stress makers such as plasma and urinary F2-isoprostane as well as plasma and tissue levels of nitrotyrosine and (Vega-Lopez et al., 2004; Oberg et al., 2004, Ceriello et al., 2001). There are multiple sources of oxidative stress in diabetes including non–enzymatic, enzymatic and mitochondrial pathways. Nonenzymatic sources of oxidative stress originate from the oxidative biochemistry of glucose. Hyperglycemia can directly cause increased ROS generation. Glucose can undergo autoxidation and generate •OH radicals (Turko et al.,2001). In addition, glucose reacts with proteins in a nonenzymatic manner leading to the development of Amadori products followed by formation of Advance Glycation End Substance (AGEs). ROS is generated at multiple steps during this process. In hyperglycemia, there is enhanced metabolism of glucose through the polyol (sorbitol) pathway, which also results in enhanced production of .

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