ABSTRACT
Studies on internal migration in Ghana have largely been on the prominence of rural to urban migration. But little is known on the various types of internal migration and the factors influencing their employment characteristics. This paper is a quantitative research which employed the Ghana Living Standard Survey round six (GLSS, 2013/2014) and a sample size of 7,195 migrants aged between 15 and 34 years to investigate the socioeconomic factors that influence migrants employment characteristics in Ghana.
The results at the univariate show that females constituted more than half of the migrants. This is an interesting finding because it is generally believed that men move internally than women. Findings at the bivariate and multivariate also reveals that variables like sex, age, educational attainment were statistically significantly associated with employment characteristics whereas internal migrant type, marital status, religious denomination, ethnicity and region were not statistically significantly associated with formal sector jobs at the multivariate level.
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY.
Migration is the permanent movement of people from one location to another. It usually involves a change in the residential address and movement of personal possessions. Migration is a phenomenon that touches a wide variety of lives and people of different backgrounds around the world. Most often, there is a close relationship between migration, geopolitics, trade, and cultural exchange. This relationship creates tremendous benefits to states, businesses and the community as a whole. Although migration comes with its complexities and multiplicities of issues, it has contributed positively to the lives of people both in the country of origin and destination. Conversely, migration has also led to displacement of people due to conflicts, persecutions, environmental degradation, change in climate and extreme lack of human security and opportunity (World Migration Report, 2018).
Migration occurs at two spatial levels, international and internal. International migration involves movement of people from one country to another. As such, migrants are often confronted with regulations first and foremost from the country of origin and subsequently the potential country of destination. For example, international migrants are required to obtain a passport from their country of origin and a visa from the potential county of destination. These factors serve as intervening obstacles to international migrants. Internal migration on the other hand is the movement of people within their country. There are no territorial restrictions or legal constraints associated with internal migration. Internal migrants can move freely within the country (Adepoju, 1984). Migration involves three major actors. They include the migrants, the area or country of origin, and the area or country of destination. Both international and internal migrations have causes and consequences. These
causes and consequences can either be economic, political, social or demographic (Heisel, 1982).
Recent global estimates in 2015 indicate that there were 244 million international migrants in the world, representing 3.3 percent of the global population (Trends in International Migrant Stock, 2015) whiles estimate in 2009 of internal migrants was about 740 million. This means more people migrate within countries than across national borders. Also, research by the International Organization for Migration (IOM), shows that internal migration in most countries is far greater than international migration (IOM, 2005). Countries with very large proportions of internal migrants include Vietnam, India, and China (Anh et al., 2003; Srivastava and Sasi Kumar, 2003; Ping, 2003).
There are two perspectives about employment; a person can either be employed or unemployed. An employed person is someone who is actually engaged in any type of work for a livelihood. Where ‘Work refers to any economic activity performed by an individual that contributes to economic production of goods and services’ (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). An unemployed person, on the other hand, is an individual who is not engaged in any work and has no attachment to a job or business and is potentially available for jobs (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014).
According to employment reports, out of the world’s 7 billion people, 3 billion people are gainfully employed and 205 million people are unemployed. These statistics depict a very high level of employment in the world. Again it was found out that 74.5 million young people aged 15 to 24 years were unemployed in 2013. This affirms that more adults are employed than the youth (Global Employment Trends, 2014).
The International Labour Organization indicates that there is a slight decline in employment globally, about 0.1 percent. The employment rate among the working population declined
steadily from 61.7 percent in 2007 to 61.2 percent in 2009 and 61.1 percent in 2010 (Global Employment Trends, 2011). It is further estimated that employment is not expanding widely to keep up with the growing labour force. It is projected that job seekers will reach 215 million by 2018 if current unemployment levels persist. Moreover research has it that the youth are mostly at the disadvantaged by the uneven recovery of employment.
Migration in Africa has been an unending phenomenon in the past and presently an important demographic feature (Anarfi, 1982). In the past migration in Africa had been occurring in groups and mostly unstructured and demographically undifferentiated (Adepoju, 1979). However in recent times it has been largely selective (Landale et al., 2000). Migration remains an important phenomenon and extensively practiced in Africa. In every household in Africa, there is at least one family member who has migrated either internally or externally (FAO, 2017). Internal migration in some parts of sub-Saharan Africa has in divers ways been positive or negative (Seel et al., 2014). Africans move internally for several reasons including shifts in systems of justice, food security, marriage, and extensive agricultural activities among others (Paciotti et al., 2005). Furthermore, internal migrants usually have their origination from rural areas whereas international migrants are from urban areas. Migration in Africa occurs predominantly among males, aged between 15 and 35 years (Weeks, 2010). Similarly, in Africa, employment is evidently considered the main determinant of migration followed by education and family ties (Weeks 2010). Women in Africa are mostly known to migrate for family-related and other economic reasons (FAO, 2017).
The labour force in Sub-Saharan Africa can be grouped under two main characteristics. Firstly, the labour force in Africa is evidently higher in the rural areas than in the urban areas. Secondly, labour force is remarkably higher among males than females. There are a fairly high proportion of young people in Africa. The youth in Africa are viewed as the greatest asset. The African youth population is protracted to double to over eight hundred and thirty
(830) million by 2050. The youth aged 15-35 years are about four hundred and twenty (420) million with one-third unemployed and only one in six in wage employment. The youth employment characteristic in Africa in 2015 was as follows: those vulnerable 35 percent, unemployed and discouraged 31 percent, employed 15 percent and finally those who form the inactive group constitute 19 percent (African Development Bank Group, 2016).
Ghana is noted for her long history and tradition of population mobility. This dates back to a period long before colonisation (Wolfson, 1958). These movements were internal and in groups from different ethnicities into other areas in search of security, new lands either for settlements or fertile lands for farming ( Awumbila, et.al, 2008). These internal movements within the confines of Ghana were in the form of rural-urban, rural-rural, urban-urban and urban-rural migration after independence (Addo, 1968, 1971, 1981; Caldwell, 1968, 1969; De
Graft Johnson, 1974; Arthur, 1991; Twumasi Ankrah, 1995; Simon et al., 2004).
In the early post-independence era, the Ghanaian economy became attractive with employment opportunities, development of industries, and high wages in urban areas. This relative affluence in Ghana compared to its neighbors attracted migrants from several regions (Antwi Bosiakoh, 2008).
Migration of Ghanaians has always been either within West Africa, between the region and the rest of the continent. In recent times, migration in Ghana has been both internal and external thus south and north. International migration came about as a result of the hardship that hit the Ghanaian economy in the 1976 taking away a lot of skilled labour including teachers, medical professionals, lawyers, and administrators to countries like Zambia, Nigeria, Botswana and Uganda for better economic opportunities. (Anarfi et. al, 2003; Clemens and Peterson, 2006).
The Ghanaian economy in recent years has not been generating employment opportunities for its populace. As a result, most of its workers are engaged in low-income agricultural and informal activities. Employment in Ghana is often characterized by low productivity and uncertain earnings. The country’s unemployment situation creates regional disparities and leads to rural-to-urban migration which intensifies social problems in the country (J. Heintz, 2005).
The results of the Integrated Business Establishment Survey (IBES) conducted in 2014 gives detailed employment characteristics of Ghanaians in the formal and informal sector of employment. Ghanaians engaged in the informal establishment are about sixty percent (59.9%) while the formal establishment covers twenty four percent (24%). Also the industrial and services sectors account for the highest share of employment in Ghana (National Employment Report, 2015).
This study will add to the understanding of the complexities of migration in Ghana. This study focuses on the different types of internal migration and employment characteristics in Ghana. It touches on the relationship between the socioeconomic characteristics of migrants and their employment characteristics.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
In sub-Saharan Africa, economic improvements of the urban sectors at the expense of rural areas have contributed to rural urban migration. Consequently, large migration movements from rural areas to urban areas have led to uncontrolled increased in growth of cities (Haug, 2014). Apart from insufficient urban infrastructure, internal migration also results in increased pressure on the labour market (Haug, 2014). For instance, more of the youth who migrate from the rural areas to the urban areas are mostly found in the wage labour market creating the general work environment in the urban areas very harmful (Haug, 2014).
Most of the young people that migrate from rural or urban areas to urban areas are usually characterised with low educational attainment. In the urban sector, which predominantly employs individuals in the informal sector, most of the migrants get employed within this sector and receive low wages. The formal sector which is subject to regulations, wages paid on regular basis, levied taxes, existing contracts between employers and workers among other processes serves as barriers for these young migrants who move from the rural areas or urban areas to urban areas to venture into this sector of jobs. Another contributing reason can be attributed to the lack of vacancies readily available in this sector of job. This as a result creates an unequal distribution in these employment sectors. However, having low wages from the informal sector restricts these individuals to be insecure and not able to meet their basic necessities of life.
The informal economies do not only absorb labour force from the public sector but also absorbs the majority of graduates from universities and high schools because of its easy entry and exist (Ministry of Education 2013; p.78). The development of the informal economy is not only unique in the Ghanaian economy but it is as well witnessed all over the world, most especially in sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia and South America because internal migration is predominant and characterised by low economies (Anh et al., 2003; Srivastava and Sasi Kumar, 2003; Ping, 2003).
Looking at Ghana’s growing and well-known difficulties that face internal migrants in finding productive employment (World Bank, 2012; Baah Boateng, 2013; Honarati & De Silva, 2016; Sackey and Osei, 2006, Kwankye, 2012; Awumbila, 2014; Tacoli McGranahan & Scatterwoute, 2015). It is essential and necessary to study the socioeconomic characteristics of internal migrant and their employment characteristics in an environment where unemployment is on the increase. Moreover there have been much research and policy debates in Ghana on migration and the various sector of jobs and development (Haug, 2014,
Yeboah et al., 2015; Kumi& Yeboah, 2016; Asante, 2014; Awumbila, 2014; Awumbila et al., 2008; Awumbila, Owusu & Teye, 2014; Amoako & Apusigah, 2013). A lot of researches on migration agree that the strongest factor responsible for internal migration is the search for better work opportunities in destination areas. Despite the prominence of this issue there is limited literature focusing on the socioeconomic characteristics of migrants that influence their employment characteristics and type. This study seeks to fill the gap that has been raised above and also add to academic discourse of migration and employment studies
1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following are the research questions of the study.
- What are the changes of internal migrants and their employment characteristics?
- What is the relationship between the socioeconomic characteristics of migrants and their employment characteristics?
- What are the socioeconomic characteristics of internal migrants?
OBJECTIVES
The general objective of the study is to examine the relationship between the types of internal migration and employment characteristics in Ghana.
