ROLE OF SELF-ESTEEM AND GENDER IN SELF-REPORT DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS AMONG ADOLESCENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page                                                      i                                        

Acknowledgement                                                                                   ii

Dedication                                                                                                 iii

Table of Content                                                                                      iv

Abstract                                                                                                      v

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION                                                                                                     ¹

Statement of the Problem                                                                      ⁸

 Purpose of Study                                                                                    9

Operational Definition of Terms                                                      9

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW                                                                           11

 Theoretical Review                                                                                  11

Theories of Depression                                                                           11

Theories of Self-Esteem                                                                         15

Gender Theories                                                                                      17

Empirical Review                                                                                      20

Self-Esteem and Depression                                                                  20

Gender and Depression                                                          27

Summary of the Reviewed Theories                                               31

Summary of the Empirical Review                     33                                             

Hypotheses                                                                                                36

CHAPTER THREE

METHOD                                                                                      ³⁷

Participants                                                                                               37

Instruments                                                                                               37

.Procedure                                                                                                          41

Design/Statistics                                                                       41

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT                                                                                                      43

CHAPTER FIVE

Discussion                                                                                                46
ABSTRACT

The study investigated the role of self-esteem and gender in self-report of depressive symptoms among adolescents in a sample of two hundred and sixty one (261) Secondary School Students in Enugu State Capital of Enugu State of Nigeria comprising adolescents from various socio-economic backgrounds. It hypothesized that self-esteem and gender would not play any significant role in the participant’s self- report of depressive symptoms. ANOVA statistics was used to analyze the data. The result showed that self-esteem played a significant role in self-report of depressive symptoms (F = 384.88, df = 1, p <. 05), with participants who have high self-esteem reporting low depression than those with low self-esteem. On the other hand, male and female students did not differ in their report on depression.

Discussion highlighted the importance of intervention in limiting or eliminating depression thereby leading to enhanced mental health.

Keywords: self-esteem, gender, depression, secondary school students
CHAPTER ONE

 INTRODUCTION

Depression is a common mental illness that affects a lot of people all over

the world. It is a universal experience and it is said to be the common cold of psychopathology in Europe and America (Oladimeji 1995). In Africa as well, depression has been found, in its various forms, to be high on the list of common problems in psychiatric clinics and hospitals (Gentian 1968; Ebie, 1972).

Depression can be viewed in three separate ways as a biological disease, as a reaction to life situations, and as a means of interpersonal communication. Expounding depression as a reaction to life situations, Nolen-Hoeksema (2004) defined depression as a state marked by either a sad mood or a loss of interest in one’s usual activities, as well as feelings of hopelessness, suicidal ideation, psychomotor agitation or retardation and trouble concentrating.

Investigators recently have begun to develop models that attempt to integrate cognitive and interpersonal processes in understanding vulnerability to depression. With respect to cognitive dysfunctions, depression is marked by a variety of negative thought patterns, including dysfunctional attitudes (Barnett & Gotlib, 1992). Importantly, such negative thinking is associated with relapse of depression (Simons, Murphy, Levine, & Wetzel, 1986) and its absence predicts recovery from the disorder (Brown, Bifulco, & Andrew, 1990.) With respect to interpersonal difficulties, depression has been linked to interpersonal rejection (Gotlib & Robinson, 1982), inadequate social support in times of crisis (Brown, Bifulco, Harris & Bridge, 1986) and marital conflict (Beach, Sandeen, & O’Leary, 1990). Furthermore, relapse in depression is associated with family criticism (Hooley, Orley & Teasdale, 1986), whereas speed and likelihood of recovery is predicted by low levels of family conflict, and positive overall family functioning (Corney, 1987).

In recent years, a variety of new and innovative models of depression have been proposed (Beck, 1972). The author analyzed depression from a social learning or behavioural point of view. The various symptoms of clinical depression are seen as maladaptive behaviours, to a considerable degree acquired through learning principles. Emphasis is on the roles of environmental antecedents and consequences of depressed behaviour and faulty patterns maintenance of depression.

Symptom, according to Harriman (1977) is any observed characteristic or change indicating the presence or onset of a pathological condition. The symptoms of depression, within the behavioural framework, are classified by their mode of expression into the physiological, overt-motor and verbal-cognitive categories (Lang, 1968 as cited in Oladimeji, 1995), According to American Psychiatric Association (2000), depression includes a variety of emotional, physiological, behavioural, and cognitive symptoms. Emotional Symptoms include; sadness, depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities, irritability (particularly in children and adolescents).

Physiological and Behavioural Symptoms include: sleep disturbance (hypersomnia or insomnia), appetite disturbances, psychomotor retardation or agitation, catatonia (Unusual behaviours ranging from complete lack of movement to excited agitation), fatigue and loss of energy. Cognitive Symptoms include: poor concentration and attention, indecisiveness, sense of worlhlessness or guilt, poor self-esteem, hopelessness, suicidal thoughts, delusion and hallucinations with depressive themes.

Diagnostic and  Statistical Manual four (DSM-IV) of the American

Psychiatric Association (2003) categorized major depressive episodes and stated that five  (or more)  of the nine  symptoms  ——  depressed mood;  marked diminished interest or pleasure in all or almost all activities most of the day; significant   weight   loss   when   not   dieting,   or  weight   gain;   insomnia  or hyposomnia nearly  every  day;  psychomotor agitation  or retardation nearly everyday; fatigue or loss of energy nearly everyday; feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt; diminished ability to think or concentrate or indecisiveness, nearly everyday; and recurrent thought of death or recurrent suicidal ideation —- should be present during the same 2 – week period and represent a change from previous functioning. (APA, 2003).

Self- esteem, according to Edelman and Remond (2005), is the way one looks at oneself: If one has good self – esteem, it means that one likes oneself and has positive feeling as everyone else. If one has poor self- esteem, it means that one does not have positive feeling about him / herself or that he / she is inferior to others (Edelman & Remond, 2005),

Self – esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect a person’s overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth. Self – esteem encompasses belief (e.g., “I am competent” or “I am incompetent”) and emotions, such as’ triumph, despair, pride and shame, Self – esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension (e.g., “I believe I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in particular”) or have global extent (e.g., “I believe I am a good person and feel proud of myself in general.”) People who have poor self-esteem tend to focus on and magnify their perceived shortcomings, and ignore their strengths and achievements.

Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as enduring personality characteristics (“trait” self-esteem), though normal, short term variations (“state” self- esteem) also exist (lleasoner, 2010).

Edelman and Remond (2005) suggest how self-esteem affects ones life. According to them, self – esteem can affect how one feels, how one relates to other people, how one deals with challenges and how relaxed and safe one feels in one’s daily life. In order to be happy, a person needs to like himself. If one believes that he has no positive feeling, or if he is constantly putting himself down, he is more likely to feel depressed, anxious, or miserable than someone who has a positive view of himself.

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