ABSTRACT
This study is couched within the framework of Basic Linguistic Theory. It takes a descriptive approach to the study of the typology of questions and their responses in the Efutu dialect of the Awutu-Efutu language (Guan, Kwa). It is further aimed at establishing the relevance of focus in questions and to find out how question intonation and questions particles interact. The typology of questions was based on the kind of responses the questions solicit. Three types of questions were identified, namely; polar, alternative and content questions. Polar questions are formed through the use of question intonation or with the question particles and
. It was established that question intonation is the obligatory element that differentiate a declarative from its corresponding polar question. It was also found that question intonation is present even when a question particle is used in the construction of a polar question. Efutu is classified among languages that confirm the utterance over the reality in answering a negative polar question when the state express by the negative question is true. The question intonation is also the only element that leads to the identification of alternative questions as unlike a conjoined declarative with the disjunctive question particle. Two strategies were identified in the formation of content questions, namely; in-situ and focused content questions which ends with the aa utterance final clitic. Focus is a common strategy in questions in Efutu and it is associated with saliency and emphasis. This study serves as a reference for future research in Efutu and in question formation.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………………………… i
DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………………………… ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………………….. iii
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………………. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………………………………. vi
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………………… x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………………………………….. xi
CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………. 1
1.8 Organisation of Thesis ………………………………………………………………………………
CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………………………………………. 21
POLAR QUESTIONS………………………………………………………………………………. 21
. . . Th u on a…………………………………………………………………… 36
. . . Th u on a……………………………………………………………………… 41
CHAPTER THREE…………………………………………………………………………………… 57
ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS…………………………………………………………………. 57
- Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………… 57
. . u on a……………………………………………………………………………… 59
CHAPTER FOUR…………………………………………………………………………………….. 81
CONTENT QUESTIONS………………………………………………………………………….. 81
- Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………… 81
4. . Amε ‘Wha /Wh h’………………………………………………………………………….. 85
4. . . Amε ‘Wha / wh h’…………………………………………………………………….. 86
4. . . Amε nky / b ‘Wh n’……………………………………………………………….. 91
4. . . Amε a ͻ ny ky ‘Why’…………………………………………………………………. 94
4. .4 Inε ‘How’……………………………………………………………………………………… 96
4.3.5 Ahi / Anyε ‘Wh ’……………………………………………………………………….. 97
4. .5. Ah ‘Wh ’………………………………………………………………………………. 97
4. .5. Anyε ‘Wh ’………………………………………………………………………….. 99
4. .6 Ɛnε ‘Who’……………………………………………………………………………………. 100
4.5. Multiple Content Questions………………………………………………………………… 110
CHAPTER FIVE……………………………………………………………………………………. 119
CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………… 119
BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………………….. 124
LIST OF TABLES
- Interrogative Words and Phrases in Efutu
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
- – First Person
- – Second Person
- – Third Person
[ ] – High Tone
– Low Tone
– Nasalised COMPL – Completive DEF – Definite
DEG – Degree
DET – Determiner
FOC – Focus
INANIM – Inanimate
LOC – Locative
MOD – Modal
NEG – Negative
PRES – Present
PRF – Perfect
Pro – Pronoun
PROG – Progressive
PL – Plural
SG – Singular
SIL – Summer Institute of Linguistics STAT Stative
CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The study of syntax does not only investigate universal tendencies but also, those tendencies that are language specific. Three basic types of sentences: namely declaratives, imperatives and questions are identifiable across languages but these may have peculiar manifestations in various languages. This study focuses on questions (interrogative sentences). This type of sentence is used to elicit information that may or may not be known and to seek for clarification of what ha a ady b n u d. Th mpha z Kön g and S mund’ ( 007: 9 ) a on ha “ n oga v n n a onv n onally associated with the
p h a of qu ng nfo ma on”. An u an may b n oga v n structure; however, it may function pragmatically as a command with or without non-v ba u u h a m , D xon ( 0 ). Thu u h a on u on ‘no ’ a true question but only one in form because it does not solicit for an answer rather it directs the addressee to perform an action.
Questions may be classified using a number of criteria and according to Collins ( 006: 84), “ h mo w d y known hat based on the different types of possible answers: between what are commonly called Yes/No questions, alternative questions and wh-qu on ”, ( a o Dzam h 00 , u k and Greenbaum 2000, Saah 1998, Baker 1989).
It is attested that different languages use various strategies in question formation, English uses a number of question words in content questions whiles Ewe may use the question word ka ‘wha /wh h’ after an NP to question the NP and mark construction as a content question, Dixon (2012); with Efutu being no exception.
u on n Efu u an qua y b g oup d on h ba of Co n ’ ( 006) classification. This current work takes a look at how questions are formed in Efutu; the types of questions, strategies involved in their formation and how these questions are responded to. The u n wo k do no on d ‘ nd qu on ’ a u qu on and w no d u d h m n h y do no qu answers. Dixon (2012) aff m h and a ha “…the label is misleading. They are not any kind of question, but rather statements about qu on ”, (Dixon 2012:406).
The Socio-linguistics of Efutu
Efutu is a dialect of the Efutu–Awutu language. In the literature, this language is sometimes referred to simply as Efutu (or Afutu) or Awutu (Forson and Gingiss 1976). Dolphyne and Kropp-Dakubu (1988:77) identify Winneba, Senya Beraku, Awutu Beraku (Obutu) and their surrounding villages as places where the language is originally spoken. This work however identifies the language as Awutu-Efu u, a d n f d n h “Map of Ghana an Languag ” pub h d by the Language Centre of University of Ghana.
Awutu-Efutu has three dialects: Efutu, Awutu and Senya. The Efutu dialect, spoken in the Efutu Municipality with Winneba as the capital, is closer to the
Senya dialect spoken at Senya Beraku and its surrounding villages (on the coast) and the in-land dialect. Awutu is spoken at Awutu Beraku, Bawjiase and their surrounding villages. The Awutu dialect is the most widely spoken; however, the Efutu dialect is the most prominent due to the location of its speakers, in the capital of the Winneba Municipality, where there is a number of educational institutions including a university, the University of Education, Winneba. The municipality lies on latitudes 5020 north and longitudes 0025 and 0037 west of south eastern part of Central Region of Ghana with an area of 417.3 square kilometre (km2) (www.ghanadistrict.com/districts). Winneba is the corrupted form of h Eng h ph a ‘w ndy bay’, bu na ives call the place Simpa.
Forson and Gingiss (1976) classify Awutu-Efutu as a Guan language under the Volta-Comoe branch of the Kwa sub-family. It belongs to the southern coastal Guan of Kwa language group of Niger-Congo language family.
Efutu is minimally documented; most aspects such as the syntax, morphology and phonology of the dialect are not adequately described. Obeng (2008) gives a grammatical sketch of Efutu; this happens to be the most comprehensive work on its grammar. Unlike most coastal languages in Ghana such as Fante, Ewe and Ga, it is not written. In areas where the language thrives, schoolchildren are taught using Fante (Akan) and English. This, (Fante in education) and the presence of the speakers of other languages have created a triglossic situation in Winneba; Efutu is used in personal, domestic and traditional activities. According to Boafo et al (2002) and Obeng (2008), Efutu is used in activities such as pouring libation and
along the beaches of Winneba by fisherfolks while Fante and English are used elsewhere especially in schools and churches. This situation indicates that, multilingualism in Winneba is the norm rather than the exception. It is worthy to note that despite the fact that Fante is the most prominent language in the Efutu-
p ak ng a a, “ h no nd a on of mm n n anguag h f n h Awu u- Efu u a a” (Boafo a 00 : ). Th b au of h on nuou u of h language in some settings such as the domestic setting and the positive attitude of the na v owa d h anguag and h p op ’ w ngn o ak up a y
on w h h a on ha : “(a) wou d p v h anguag , (b) w n communication in it will promote education in the area and (c) development of the language will preserve the Awutu-Efu u u u and d n y”, Boafo et al (2002:30).
Statement of the Problem
Two types of questions, polar and constituent questions have been identified in the literature on Efutu, (Obeng 2008). However, my preliminary study brings out alternative questions in addition to polar and constituent questions. Also, Akrofi- Ansah (2010), working on Larteh; a related Guan language, establishes that focused constituent interrogatives are more emphatic and are constrained by age and social rank. These reasons indicate the necessity of studying questions in Efutu to contribute to the understanding of the grammatical structure of the Efutu language and questions in general.
Aims
A number of Guan languages have become extinct; such languages include Nterato, which used to be spoken north of Salaga, Mpre and Mpur on the west and east banks of the White Volta respectively (Dolphyne and Kropp-Dakubu 1988). Every language contributes to the study of Language and its extinction also means those contributions it would have given would be lost. The main aim of this thesis is to describe the formation of questions in the Efutu dialect of the Awutu-Efutu language. The specific objectives are;
- To establish the various types of interrogatives in Efutu and how these are responded to.
- To investigate whether there is a relationship between focus and content questions.
. To f nd ou wh h n ona on ob ga o y v n n h p n of h ‘ ’ word in polar and alternative questions.
4. To relate questions in Efutu to other related languages, especially Guan languages.
Relevance
This work is relevant for the following reason;
- It will be the major work on questions in Efutu
- It will also contribute to the knowledge on questions especially on questions on the Guan language family
- It will serve as the basis for future research
Methodology and Data Collection
Data for this work would be drawn from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data is elicited from native speakers through the use of Lingua descriptive study questionnaire (Comrie and Smith 1977) and also through the recordings of paired picture reading with the use of Topological Picture Relation Series (Max Planck Institute (MPI) tools). The conversations of language consultants were recorded, transcribed and translated with an interlineal glossing. The orthography used is consistent with the language and tones are marked when their presence is necessary to the understanding of the language.
I used six native speakers of Efutu, three female and three males to rule out any gender differences that may exist. These language consultants have ages ranging from twenty-five (25) to sixty-nine (69) and are drawn from Winneba, the
anguag ’ ma n g og aph a o a on and ma n y f om a ong h oa wh h language is actively in use.
The sample for the study was generated with the Snow-ball method of sampling. The first language consultant was selected because of my relationship with her, her knowledge of the dialect and her residency in Winneba; this was a Purposive sampling method which is selecting a sample based on a set of given variables. The Snow-ball sampling method is a chain referral method where one language consultant refers the researcher to other potential consultants and these consultants in turn introduce other consultants to the researcher based on their (new consultants) knowledge on the language under investigation. Data was also taken from the recordings of an Efutu programme from Radio Peace on 88.9 megahertz, a community radio in Winneba that holds 10% of its programme in Efutu.
